GK 4 PSC

List of Isolines

2011-04-28T22:21:00.000-07:00

Isolines

Isolines are often used on maps to represent points of equal value. This is a list of some common (as well as obscure) types of isolines. The prefix "iso-" means "equal."

* Isobar

A line representing points of equal atmospheric pressure

* Isobath

A line representing points of equal depth under water

* Isobathytherm

A line representing depths of water with equal temperature

* Isochasm

A line representing points of equal recurrence of auroras

* Isocheim

A line representing points of equal mean winter temperature

* Isochrone

A line representing points of equal time-distance from a point, such as the transportation time from a particular point

* Isodapane

A line representing points of equal transport costs for products from production to markets

* Isodose

A line representing points of equal intensity of radiation

* Isodrosotherm

A line representing points of equal dew point

* Isogeotherm

A line representing points of equal mean temperature

* Isogloss

A line separating linguistic features

* Isogonal

A line representing points of equal magnetic declination

* Isohaline

A line representing points of equal salinity in the ocean

* Isohel

A line representing points receiving equal amounts of sunshine

* Isohume

A line representing points of equal humidity

* Isohyet

A line representing points of equal precipitation

* Isoneph

A line representing points of equal amounts of cloud cover

* Isopectic

A line representing points where ice begins to form at the same time each fall or winter

* Isophene

A line representing points where biological events occur at the same time, such as crops flowering

* Isoplat

A line representing points of equal acidity, as in acid precipitation

* Isopleth

A line representing points of equal numerical value, such as population

* Isopor

A line representing points of equal annual change in magnetic declination

* Isostere

A line representing points of equal atmospheric density

* Isotac

A line representing points where ice begins to melt at the same time each spring

* Isotach

A line representing points of equal wind speed

* Isothere

A line representing points of equal mean summer temperature

* Isotherm

A line representing points of equal temperature

* Isotim

A line representing points of equal transport costs from the source of a raw material

About 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup

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Host(s) : India, Sri Lanka & Bangladesh
Champions : India
Runner Up :Sri Lanka
Participants : 14 (from 104 entrants)
Matches played : 49
Man of the Series : Yuvraj Singh
Most runs : Tillakaratne Dilshan (500)
Most wickets : Shahid Afridi (21)
Zaheer Khan (21)

Cricket World Cup 2011 teams

Australia, West Indies, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe, New Zealand, Netherlands, Canada, Ireland, England, Bangladesh and Kenya.

ICC World Cup Trophy

There are two original Trophies with ICC. One would be held in its Head Quarters in Dubai and the other is given to the Winning team. Both the trophies are identical, the only difference would be, the Trophy in ICC Head Quarters will have the names of all the previous World Cup winners inscribed on it.

Prize Money

Winner – 3 Million US Dollars,
Runner Up – 1.5 Million US Dollars,
Total Prize Money – 10 Million US Dollars.

ICC World Cup 2011 official Mascot

The official Mascot of ICC world Cup 2011 is Stumpy, the Elephant

ICC World Cup 2011 official Song

The official theme / song of ICC World Cup is De Ghuma ke (3 Min 56 Sec). It is composed by Shankar Mahadevan, Ehsaan Noorani and Loy Mendonsa. It is sung by Shankar Mahadevan and Divya Kumar while the lyrics are given by Manoj Yadav

ICC World Cup 2011 Official Event Ambassador

Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar

Navaratnas in the court of King Janaka, Vikramaditya and in Akbar's darbar

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Navaratnas or Nauratan (Sanskrit dvigu nava-ratna- "nine gems") was a term applied to a group of nine extraordinary people in a king's court in India. Some well-known groups are in the court of King Janaka, Vikramaditya and in Akbar's darbar.

Navaratnas in the court of King Janaka
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*Yajnavalkya was a legendary sage of Vedic India, credited with the authorship of the Shatapatha Brahmana (including the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad), besides Yogayajnavalkya Samhita and the Yajnavalkya Smrti . He is also a major figure in the Upanishads.

*Maitreyi was a vedic philosopher from ancient India. She was the second wife of famous sage and philosopher, Yajnavalkya, the first being Katyaayanee.

Maitreyi was well-versed in Vedas and associated scriptures and was called brahmavadini or "an expounder of the Veda" by people of her time. About ten hymns in Rig Veda are accredited to Maitreyi.

According to legend, Maitreyi really did not want to marry Yajnavalkya, but she wanted to live with him as his disciple and a spiritual companion to do sadhana or spiritual development. She went to Yajnavalkya's wife, Katyaayanee and expressed her desire to live with her husband, and with Katyaayanee's consent, she became his companion

*Gargi was an ancient Indian female philosopher, daughter of sage Vachaknu and born in the family of Garga, circa 800 - 500 BCE.

Gargi is mentioned in the Sixth and the Eighth Brahmana of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, where the brahmayajna, a philosophic congress organized by King Janaka of Videha is described, she challenged the sage Yajnavalkya with perturbing questions on the atman (soul). In Vedic literature, she is honored as one of the great natural philosophers.

Gargi composed several hymns that questioned the origin of all existence. Yogayajnavalkya Samhita, a classical text on Yoga is a dialogue between sage Yajnavalkya and Gargi

Navaratnas in the court of King Vikramaditya/Chandragupta II
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*Kalidas: Author of the great epic, ‘Shakuntala’, great poet, dramatist and the most prominent scholar of Sanskrit language.

*Amarnath: Author of ‘Sanskrit Amarkosh’

*Shapanak: Prominent Astrologist who had achieved mastery in Astrology.

*Dhanvantri: A Doctor who had achieved mastery in the science of medicine; one who was an expert in diagnosis and one who could prescribe different treatments for a single disease.

*Varruchi: Expert Linguist and an expert in Grammar

*Varahmihir: Author of World famous epic, ‘Bruhatsahita’ and mastery in Astrology.

*Ghatakpar: Expert in sculpture and architecture.

*Shanku: Expert in Geography (This name is even well known today in the field of geography)

*Vetalbhadra : Expert in black magic & tantric sciences

Navaratnas In the court of King Akbar
-------------------------------------------------------

*Abul Fazl (1551-1602) was the chronicler of Akbar's rule. He authored the biographical Akbarnama. Abul Fazl documented the history meticulously, over seven years.

*Faizi (1547-1595) was Abul Fazl's brother. He was a poet that wrote verses in Persian. King Akbar appointed him tutor in mathematics for his son.

*Mian Tansen was a singer for King Akbar, born a Hindu in 1520, who was a poet himself. He was a student of music from Swami Haridas and later from Hazrat Mohammad Ghaus. He was a court musician with the prince of Mewar and later recruited by Akbar as his court musician. Tansen became a legendary name in India and was the composer of many classical ragas. He was buried in Gwaliar, where a tomb has been constructed for him. There is a tamarind tree next to the tomb, which is reputed to be as old as the tomb itself. It is believed that one who chews a leaf from this tree in earnest faith will be bestowed with musical talents. It is unclear if Tansen converted to Islam.

*Birbal (1528-1583) was a poor Brahmin who was appointed to the court of Akbar for his intelligence, and became a court jester. Born by the name Maheshdas, he was conferred the name Raja Birbal by the Emperor. There are many witty stories of exchanges and interactions between the monarch and his minister that are popular today. Birbal was also a poet and his collections under the pen name "Brahma" are preserved in Bharatpur Museum. Raja Birbal died in battle, attempting to quell unrest amongst Afghani tribes in Northwest India. Akbar was said to have mourned for a long time on hearing the news.

*Raja Todar Mal was Akbar's finance minister, who from 1560 onwards overhauled the revenue system in the kingdom. He introduced standard weights and measurements, revenue districts and officers. His systematic approach to revenue collection became a model for the future Mughals as well as the British. Raja Todar Mal was also a warrior who assisted Akbar in controlling the Afghan rebels in Bengal. Raja Todar Mal had learnt his craft from another able administrator Sher Shah. In 1582, Akbar bestowed on the raja the title Diwan-I-Ashraf.

*Raja Man Singh, the Kacchwaha rajput raja of Amber. (Later Kacchwahas built Jaipur, close to Amber). This trusted lieutenant of Akbar was the grandson of Akbar's father-in-law. His family had been inducted into Mughal hierarchy as amirs (nobles). Raja Man Singh assisted Akbar in many fronts including holding off advancing Hakim (Akbar's half-brother, a governor of Kabyul) in Lahore. He also led campaigns in Orissa.

*Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, a poet was the son of Akbar's trusted protector and caretaker when he was a teenager, Bairam Khan. After Bairam Khan was murdered by treacherously, his wife became the second wife of Akbar.

*Fakir Aziao-Din who was a mystic, and an advisor.

*Mullah Do Piaza , an advisor to Akbar

*Haqeem Luqman, a medical practitioner

Following are the borrowed features of Indian constitution from different countries.

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From U.K.
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Nominal Head – President (like Queen)
Cabinet System of Ministers
Post of PM
Parliamentary Type of Govt.
Bicameral Parliament
Lower House more powerful
Council of Ministers responsible to Lowe House
Speaker in Lok Sabha

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From U.S.
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Written Constitution
Executive head of state known as President and his being the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces
Vice- President as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha
Fundamental Rights
Supreme Court
Provision of States
Independence of Judiciary and judicial review
Preamble
Removal of Supreme court and High court Judges

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From USSR
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Fundamental Duties
Five year Plan

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From AUSTRALIA
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Concurrent list
Language of the preamble
Provision regarding trade, commerce and intercourse

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From JAPAN
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Law on which the Supreme Court function

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From WEIMAR CONSTITUION OF GERMANY
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Suspension of Fundamental Rights during the emergency

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From CANADA
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Scheme of federation with a strong centre
Distribution of powers between centre and the states and placing. Residuary Powers with the centre

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From IRELAND
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Concept of Directive Principles of States Policy(Ireland borrowed it from SPAIN)
Method of election of President
Nomination of members in the Rajya Sabha by the President

Father of Something

2011-01-25T02:00:00.000-08:00

Father Of Economics -:- Adam Smith(1723-1790), England

Father Of Greek Tragedy -:- Aeschylus

The Father Of Computer Science -:- Alan Turing

The Father Of Penicillin -:- Alexander Fleming

Father Of The Telephone -:- Alexander Graham Bell.

The Father Of Anatomy -:- Andreas Vesalius

Father Of The (Soviet) Hydrogen Bomb: -:- Andrei D. Sakharov

Father Of Mathematics -:- Archimedes

Father Of Comedy -:- Aristophanes(445-385 B.C.) Greece

Father Of Indian Unrest -:- Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Lokmanya;

Father Of Computers -:- Charles Babbage

Father Of Rock N' Roll -:- Chuck Berry

Father Of Indian Politics And Economics -:- Dadabhai Naoroji

Father Of Indian Cinema -:- Dadasaheb Phalke:

Father Of Detective Story -:- Edgar Allen Poe

Father Of Immunology -:- Edward Jenner

Father Of The Hydrogen Bomb -:- Edward Teller

Father Of Nuclear Physics -:- Ernest Rutherford

Father Of Geometry -:- Euclid (300 B.C.) Greece

Father Of English Poetry -:- Geoffrey Chaucer(1340-1400) England

Father Of Railways -:- George Stephenson

Father Of The United States Of America -:- George Washington

Father Of The Novel -:- Giovanni Baccaccio

Father Of Genetics -:- Gregor Mendel

Father Of Modern Drama -:- Henrik J. Ibsen

Father Of History -:- Herodotus (484-424 B.C.) Greece

Father Of Medicine -:- Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.) Greece

Father Of Indian Nuclear Science -:- Homi J. Bhabha:

Father Of Modern Astronomy, Of Modern Science And Of Modern Mathematics -:- Isaac Newton

Father Of The Atomic Bomb -:- J. Robert Oppenheimer

Father Of Civil Aviation In India -:- J.R.D. Tata:

Father Of Indian Industry -:- Jamshedji Tata:

Father Of Sunday Newspapers -:- John Bel

Father Of States' Rights; Onslow -:- John C. Calhoun

Father Of Basketball -:- John Naismith

Father Of Soda Pop; Father Of Modern Chemistry -:- Joseph Priestley:

Father Of The Nation Of Afghanistan -:- King Mohammed Zahir Shah

Father Of Bacteriology, Of Stereochemistry And Of Microbiology -:- Louis Pasteur

Father Of The Nation Of India And Of Non-Violence -:- Mahatma Gandhi

Father Of Modern Painting In India -:- Nandlal Base:

Father Of Numbers -:- Pythagoras

Father Of Indian Renaissance -:- Raja Rammohan Roy:

Father Of Chemistry -:- Robert Boyle (1627-1691) Ireland

Father Of The Zip Code -:- Robert Moon

Father Of Indian Cardiology -:- Rustom Jal Vakil

Father Of Library Science In India -:- S. R. Ranganathan

Father Of American Revolution -:- Sam Adams

Father Of Texas -:- Sam Houston

Father Of Aviation -:- Sir George Cayley

Father Of The Revolution And The Nation Of The Republic Of China -:- Sun Yat-Sen

Father Of Modern Plastic Surgery -:- Susruta:

Father Of Modern Tourism -:- Thomas Cook:

Father Of English Printing -:- William Caxton

Fathers Of Aviation -:- Wright Brothers

Father Of E-Mail -:- Ray Tomlinson

History of the radio

2011-01-25T00:55:00.000-08:00

The lightning-recording antenna was invented by Aleksandr Popov in 1895. The first experimental transmission of wireless signals were carried out by Guglielmo Marconi in the same year. A patent of wireless communication was filed by Marconi in 1896. In 1899, a 42 km link was laid between two cruisers containing Ducretet-Popov devices in France. In the same year, a wireless transmission was laid through the English Channel from Wimereux to Dover by Marconi. In 1901, Marconi demonstrated the first transatlantic wireless transmission between Poldhu and St. John's by using Morse code. In 1903, Valdemar Poulsen began arc transmission to create high-frequency alternators to send radio waves. The New York Times and the London Times knew about the Russo-Japanese war due to radio in 1903. In the next year, a commercial maritime radio network was established under the control of the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs in France. Then, John Fleming invented the thermionic two-electrode valve so that sound transmission was feasible. In 1905, lead sulphide could be used to detect radio-electric signals. In 1906, Reginald Fessenden designed a high-frequency alternator and transmitted human voice over the radio. In 1906, Lee de Forest made the detection, transmission and amplification of sound possible. In 1910, a broadcast from the Metropolitan Opera House in New York city could be heard on a ship that was 20 km away. 1911 to 1930 was the period of the growth of the radio. The Radio Corporation of America was founded. This was done by combining General Electic, Western Electric, AT&T and Westinghouse. It was in this era that radio broadcasting began in Australia. Battery-powered receivers having headphones and valves were seen in France. A radio telephone concert was broadcast across the Atlantic Ocean to several receivers. In this era, radio broadcasting started in Shanghai and Cuba. The first regular broadcasts took place in Belgium, Norway, Germany, Finland and Switzerland. Soon radio became prevalent throughout the globe

Who invented the radio?

The credit of inventing the radio goes to a number of researchers. The names of Guglielmo Marconi, Nikola Tesla, Alexander Popov, Sir Oliver Lodge, Reginald Fessenden, Heinrich Hertz, Amos Dolbear, Mahlon Loomis, Nathan Stubblefield and James Clerk Maxwell can be included. But in general Guglielmo Marconi is known as “Father of Radio”

History of the radio in India

In British India broadcasting started in June 1923 with programmes by the Radio Club of Bombay, followed by other radio clubs. Then, by an agreement of 1926 the private Indian Broadcasting Company (IBC) was granted permission to operate two radio stations; the Bombay station was inaugurated on July 23, 1927, the Calcutta station followed on August 26, 1927. But already on March 1, 1930 the Company went into liquidation. Thus the Government took over the broadcasting facilities, starting the Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) on April 1, 1930 (on experimental basis for two years, but continued in May 1932). On June 8, 1936 the ISBS was renamed All India Radio (AIR; also known as Akashvani since 1956). On October 1, 1939 the External Service started (with a broadcast in Pushtu); it was designated to counter radio propaganda from Germany, directed to Afghanistan, Iran and Arab countries. When India became independent in 1947, the AIR network had only six stations: Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Lucknow, and Tiruchi; the total number of radio sets at that time was about 275,000. On October 3, 1957 the Vividh Bharati Service was launched to comptete with Radio Ceylon. Television broadcasting began in Delhi in 1959 as part of AIR, but was separated from radio as Doordarshan on April 1, 1976. FM broadcasting commenced on July 23, 1977 in Madras and was expanded in the 1990s.

In radio transmission, what does FM stands for ?

Freequency Modulator

In radio transmission, what does AM stands for ?

Amplitude Modulation

What is the FM and AM radio frequency range?

The FM range is 88 - 108 MHz (with broadcast frequencies, or stations, assigned between 88.1 and 107.9 MHz every 0.2 MHz). The AM range is 535 - 1605 KHz (stations are assigned between 540 and 1600 KHz every 10 KHz).

SOME ORIGINAL NAMES WITH ABBREVIATED OR ALTERNATIVE NAMES

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1) Acharya Rajneesh:Osho

2) Adam Smith: Father of Economics

3) Adolf Hitler: Fuhrer (also fuehrer)

4) Alfred Hitchcock: Master of Suspense

5) Andrei D. Sakharov: Father of the (Soviet) Hydrogen Bomb

6) Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Lokmanya; Father of Indian Unrest

7) Bhagat Singh: Shahid - e - Azam

8) C. Rajagopalachari: C.R. Rajaji

9) C.F. Andrews: Deenabandhu

10) C.N. Annadurai: Anna

11) Chittaranjan Das: Deshbandhu

12) Dadabhai Naoroji: Grand Old Man of India; Father of Indian Politics and
Economics.

13) Dadasaheb Phalke: Father of Indian Cinema.

14) Duke of Wellington: Iron Duke.

15) Dwight David Eisenhower: lke

16) Edmund Spencer: Poets' Poet

17) Eivis Presley; Elvis the Pelvis

18) Ernest Rutherford: Father of Nuclear Physics.

19) Erwin Rammel: Desert Fax.

20) Florence Nightingale: Lady with the Lamp.

21) Geoffrey Chaucer: Father of English Poetry.

22) George Bernard Show: 'G.B.S'

23) Giovanni Baccaccio: Father of the Novel

24) Gurcharan Singh: Ground Old Man of Indian Pottery, Daddyji.

25) Henrik J. Ibsen: Father of Modern Drama

26) Herodotus: Father of History

27) Hippocrates: Father of Medicine

28) Homi J. Bhabha: Father of Indian Nuclear Science

29) Indira Gandhi: Iron Lady of India

30) J.R.D. Tata: Father of Civil Aviation in India.

31) Jamshedji Tata: Father of Indian Industry

32) Jawaharlal Nehru: Chacha; Panditji

33) Jayaprakash Narayan: 'J.P'; Loknayak

34) Joan of Arc: Maid of Orleans

35) Joseph Priestley: Father of Soda Pop; Father of Modern Chemistry

36) K.M. Cariappa: Kipper, Grand Old Man of Indian Army.

37) K.V. Puttappa: Kuvempu

38) Kalidas: Indian Shakespeare, Shakespeare of India

39) Kato Ichire: Dr. Robot.

40) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan: Badshah Khan; Frantier Gandhi; Fakhre-e Afghan,

41) Lala Lajpat Rai: Punjab Kesari (Lion of the Punjab or Sher-e-Punjab)

42) M.F. Robespierre: The Incorruptible

43) M.K. Gandhi: Bapu; Mahatma; Father of the Nation.

44) M.S. Golwalkar: Guruji

45) Madan Mohan Malaviya: Mahamana

46) Nandlal Base: Father of Modern Painting in India.

47) Napoleon Bonaparte: Little Corporol; Man of Density.

48) Otto Von Bismarck: Man of Blood and Iron; Iron Chancellor

49) Queen Elizabeth I; Maiden Queen

50) Rabindranath Tagore: Gurudev

51) Raja Rammohan Roy: Father of Indian Renaissance.

52) Rajinder Singh: Sparrow

53) Richard Cobden: Apostle of Free Trade

54) S. Sathyamurthi: Firebrand of South India

55) Salim Ali: The Birdman of India

56) Samudragupta: Indian Napoleon.

57) Sarojini Naidu: Nightingale of India

58) Shakti Chattapadhyaya: Robert Frost of West Bengal.

59) Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah: Lion of Kashmir (Sher-e-Kashmir)

60) Sheikh Mujibur Rahman: Bangabandhu

61) St. Nicholas: Santa Claus

62) Subhash Chandra Bose: Netaji

63) Susruta: Father of Modern Plastic Surgery

64) T.T. Krishnamachari: T.T.K.'

65) Tanguturi Prakasam: Andhra Kesari

66) Tenzing Norgay: Tiger of Snows

67) Thomas Cook: Father of Modern Tourism

68) Thomas Edward Lawrence: Lawrence of Arabia

69) Tushar Kanti Ghosh; Grand Old Man of Indian Journalism

70) V.M. Basheer: Sultan of Beypore

71) Vallabhbhai Patel: Iron Man of India, Bismarck of India.

72) Vinoba Bhave: Acharya

73) Walter Scott: Wizard of the North

74) William Ewart Gladstone: Grand Old Man of British Politics.

75) William Pitt: The Younger Pitt, Grand Commoner

76) William Shakespeare: Bard of Avon.

Famous Mottos/Slogans

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WORLD

Olympic : Citius, Atius, Fortius (Latin) - Swifter, Higher, Stronger.
Commonwealth games : HUMANITY - EQUALITY - DESTINY
Asian Games : Ever Onward
British Broadcasting Service (BBC) - Nation shall speak unto nation
NASA - For the Benefit of All
British Airways - The world's favourite airline
Google : Don't be evil

INDIA

Indian: Satyameva Jayate
Indian Railways : Lifeline of the nation
All India Radio : Bahujan Hitaya; Bahujan Sukaya
Doordarshan : Satyam Shivam Sundaram
Indian Army: Do you have it in you.
Indian Air Force : Touch the Sky with Glory
Indian Navy : Sham no Varunah (Hindi) ("May the Lord of the Oceans be auspicious unto us")
Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) - Service and Loyalty
Border Security Force (BSF) - Duty unto Death
Life Insurance Corporation - Zindagi ke sath bhe Zindagi ke baad bhi
THE ECONOMIC TIMES - The Power of Knowledge
The Indian EXPRESS - Journalism of Courage
Union Bank of India - Good People to Bank with
CANARA BANK : Serving to grow, growing to serve
Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) - Industry, Impartiality, Integrity
Bank of Baroda - India's International Bank
Emirates - Fly Emirates
Malayala Manorama: Nobody delivers Kerala better.
Kerala Police : Mridu Bhave Dhrida Kruthye (Soft Temperament, Firm Action)

SOME COMMERCIAL SLOGANS

Adidas - Impossible is nothing
Air Deccan : Simplifly
Airtel - Express Yourself
Alpenlibe- Jee Lalchaye Raha NA jaye
Amul - Utterly Butterly Delicious
Asian Paints : Har Khar Kuchch Kahta hein
Babool - Babool Babool, paise wasool
Bajaj - Hamara Bajaj
Bajaj Allianz - Jiyo befikar
Bajaj Pulsar : Definitely Male
Bajaj Tubelights - Jab mein chota bacha tha, badi shararat karta tha (Jingles)
BIG BAZAAR - Is se sasta aur Achcha kahee nahee milenga
Bingo : No Confusion, Great Combination
Boost : Boost is the secret of our energy
Ceat : Born Tough
Chlormint: Dobara mat poochna
Chloromint - Doobara mat punchna
Citra - Citraa,,,Super Cooler..
Coca Cola : Thanda Matlab Coca Cola
Complan: A complete planned food.
Dairy Milk : Swad Zindagi Ka
Debeers - A diamond is forever
Dhara Oil - Dhara Dhara Shuddh Dhara
Dinesh Suitings - Duniya aap ke Kadmo mein
Fevicol: Pakde rehna.. and Fevicol ka mazboot jod hai, tootega nahi
Fiat Linea: Admiration guaranteed
Frooti : Fresh N Juicy / Why Grow Up
Gillete: The best a man can get
Goldspot: The zing thing and Citra: Super cooler
Havelles RCB : Shock Laga Kya
HDFC Std Life: Jiyo sar utha ke
Hero Honda - Desh ki dhadkan, dhak dhak go
Hero Honda Karizma - Jet, Set, Go!
Hero Honda: Fill it. Shut it and forget it.
Hutch : Where ever you go , our network follows
IBM - Toong toong tang tang (used as jingle)
ICICI - Hum hain na
ICICI Bank - Khayal Aap Ka
ICICI: No chinta only money
Idea : An Idea can Change your life
Kayam Churan - Jee haan, Bhavnagar wale Seth Brothers Ka Kayam Choorna
Kingfisher : The King of Good Times
Kingfisher Airlines - Fly the good times
Kit Kat - Have a break, have a kit kat
Laxmi Toor Dal - Dana Dana Swad Ka Khazana
Lays: No one can eat just one
Lifebuoy : Thandurusti hain vaham
Maggi : Taste Bhi, Health Bhi ( Ketchup : Its Different)
Max New York Life - Karo Zyada ka Iraada
MDH- Asli Masale Sach sach MDH MDH
Melody - Yeh Melody itni chocolaty kyun hain, Melody khaao, khudh jaan jao
Mentos - Dimaag ki batti jalaa de
MRF : Tyres With Muscle
Navratna Oil - Thanda Thanda Cool Cool
Nike - Just do it
Nirma - Washing Powder Nirma, NIRMA!!
Nirma- Sabki Pasand Nirma
Nokia- Connecting People
Onida : Neighbor's Envy , Owner's Pride
PARLE G- G for Genius
Pepsi : Yehi hain Right Choice Baby
Pepsi: Nothing official about it
Pepsi: Yeh Dil Maange More.
Perk: Thodi si pet puja
Peter England : The Honest Shirt
Polo : The mint with a hole
Priya gold biscuits - hak se maango
Rasna : I love you Rasna
Raymond's : The Complete Man
Red FM - Bajate raho
Rotomac - Likhtey likhtey love ho jaaye
Slice: Aam Sutra
Snicker- Jab hunger machaye 4 snickers khol yaar
Sprite - Bujaaye pyaas, baaki all bakwas
Superia - Pehle Aap
Surf : Daag Acche hain
Surf Excel - Surf Excel hain na
Taj Mahal Chai - Wah Taj!
Tata Indica: More car per car
Tata Safari : Reclaim Your Life
Tata salt: Desh ka namak
Tata Sky: Isko laga dala to life zinga lala
Thum Up: I want my thunder.
Thums Up : Taste The Thunder
VIDEOCON - The Indian Multinational
Voltas - India ka Dil. India ka AC.
Yahoo - Yahoooooouuuooonnn! (used as jingle)

Panchaloham (Five Metals)

2011-01-06T21:41:00.000-08:00

“Panchaloham” as the name indicates consists of five metals. “Pancha” means five and “loham” means metal. Panchaloha idols (Vigraham) are found in many Hindu temples in India especially in South India. Panchaloham consists of Gold, Silver, Brass, Copper and Iron.

The percentage of metals used is 4 portions of silver, 1 portion of gold, 8 portions of brass, 8 portions of copper and a small quantity of iron. This percentage is only to give a general idea and might vary from region to region.

Today, the main constituent in Panchaloham idol (Vigraham) is copper, brass and lead. Large quantity of copper is mainly used in idols that are sold in large-scale like the Nataraja statue.

But the idols made for temples strictly follow the tradition and contain gold and silver.

History and Important Milestones of India’s space program

2010-12-20T22:18:00.000-08:00

Though ancient Indians were known to have knowledge about rocket science- it being used in during wars- it was only after independence that the process of exploring space really accelerated. It was Dr. Vikram Sarabhai who founded the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad on November 11, 1947. This was the first step that India took towards becoming a space power.

Our first biggest success was on April 19, 1975, when India launched its first satellite into space. It was launched by the Soviet Union from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch vehicle. The ‘Aryabhata’ was named after a 5th century Indian mathematician, who founded concepts of the numerical value zero and many astronomical calculations in around 500 AD.

After that India has sent a number of satellites into space, notably the Apple (1981), Bhaskara –I (1979) and Bhaskara –II (1981), INSAT-1 series (1A, -1B, -1C and -1D), INSAT-2 series (2A, -2B, -2C and -2D), IRS-Series (1A, -IB, -1E, -P2, -1C, -P3, -1D), Rohini (1A, 1B, 2 and 3) and Sross.

Also, India has developed various Launch vehicles that make a space program independent and are the most important technological measure of its advancement. Prominent among them are Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV), Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

India in Space: A Timeline

1961: The government put “Space Research” under the jurisdiction of the Department of Atomic Energy

1962: Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) established with Dr. Sarabhai as Chairman; Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) also formed

Nov 1963: TERLS launched the first sounding rocket

1969: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed

1972-76: ISRO conducts air-borne remote sensing experiments

April 19, 1975: Aryabhata- the first Indian satellite launched

1979:

• Bhaskara-I fired into space on June 7

• On August 10, ISRO launched SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload on board. However, the satellite could not be placed in orbit.

• The Second Experimental launch of SLV-3; Rohini satellite successfully placed in orbit on July 18.

1981:

• An experimental geo-stationary communication satellite - APPLE successfully launched on June 19.

• Bhaskara-II launched on November 20, 1981.

(The Bhaskara satellites are named after a 17th Century Indian astronomer and was meant to study ocean and land surface data at a cost Rs. 65 million)

From 1982 to 2003, India sent a series of INSAT or the Indian National Satellite System into space proving its mastery in space science. INSAT is a series of multipurpose Geo-Stationary satellites for telecommunications, broadcasting and meteorology needs.

April 10, 1982: INSAT-1A launched

1983: INSAT-1B, launched on August 30

1984: Indo-Soviet manned space mission on April 1984

July 21, 1988: INSAT-1C

June 12, 1990: INSAT-1D

July 10, 1992: INSAT-2A launched

July 23, 1993: INSAT-2B

December 7, 1995: INSAT-2C

June 4, 1997: INSAT-2D

April 3, 1999: INSAT-2E launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana

May 26, 1999: Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3 and German DLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikota

March 22, 2000: INSAT-3B launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,

October 22, 2001: PSLV-C3 successfully launched three satellites -- Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) of ISRO, BIRD of Germany and PROBA of Belgium.

January 24, 2002: Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana

September 12, 2002: PSLV-C4 successfully launched KALPANA-1 satellite from Sriharikota

2003:

• INSAT-3A launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 10, 2003). • Successful launch of INSAT-3E on September 28, 2003. • ISRO`s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C5, successfully launched RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6) satellite from Sriharikota(October 17, 2003).

2004: Maiden operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) launched EDUSAT from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota (September 20, 2004)

2005: • PSLV-C6 carries CARTOSAT-1 and HAMSAT satellites from Sriharikota on May 5, 2005 into orbit.

• Launch of INSAT-4A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (December 22, 2005).

2007:

• ISRO launches India’s CARTOSAT-2 and Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE-1) and Indonesia’s LAPAN-TUBSAT and Argentina’s PEHUENSAT-1 at one go on January 10, 2007.

• Successful recovery of SRE-1 from Bay of Bengal after it reenter the earth’s atmosphere on January 22, 2007 – a crucial operation that will help India in mastering the know how of reentering earth atmosphere from space.

• Successful launch of INSAT-4B by Ariane-5 from Kourou French Guyana, (March 12, 2007).

• PSLV-C8 successfully launched Italian astronomical satellite AGILE from Sriharikota on April 23.

• Successful launch of GSLV with INSAT-4CR on board from SDSC SHAR on September 2.

2008:

• PSLV-C10 successfully launches TECSAR satellite under a commercial contract with Antrix Corporation on January 21, 2008.

• PSLV-C9 successfully launches CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and 8 foreign satellites from Sriharikota on April 28.

• Chandrayaan-1 launched by a modified version of the PSLV XL on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh at 06:23 IST

• In a historic event, the Indian space programme achieved a unique feat on November 14, 2008 with the placing of Indian Tricolour on the Moon’s surface on Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s birthday. The Indian Tricolour was painted on the sides of Moon Impact Probe (MIP), one of the 11 payloads of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft, that successfully hit the lunar surface at 20:31 hrs (8:31 pm) IST. This is the first Indian built object to reach the surface of the moon. The point of MIP’s impact was near the Moon’s South Polar Region. It may be recalled that the modern Indian space programme was initiated in 1962 when Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the Prime Minister of India.

• A state of the art communication satellite, W2M, built by Antrix(Antrix Corporation Limited is commercial wing of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). The name "Antrix" is an anglicized version of Antariksh, from the Sanskrit word for "space" or "sky".)/ISRO on a commercial basis in partnership with EADS-Astrium of Europe, was successfully launched on December 21, 2008 at 0405 hrs (4:05 am) Indian Standard Time (IST) by the European Ariane-5 launch vehicle. The launch took place from the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou in French Guiana.

2009

• In its fifteenth mission carried out from Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR (SDSC SHAR), Sriharikota on April 20, 2009, ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C12) successfully placed two satellites - RISAT-2 and ANUSAT - in the desired orbit.

• India's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C14, in its 16th Mission launched 958 kg Oceansat-2 and six nano-satellites into a 720 km. intended Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO) on September 23, 2009.

• On Sep 24, 2009 Chandrayaan-1 detects presence of water on the Moon.

MILESTONES IN INDIAN ATOMIC ENERGY

2010-12-19T21:59:00.000-08:00

• March. 12, 1944 : Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha writes to Sir Dorabji Tata Trust for starting Nuclear Research in India

• December 19, 1945 :Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai is inaugurated.

• April 15, 1948 : Atomic Energy Act is passed

• August 10, 1948 : Atomic Energy Commission is constituted.

• July 29,1949 : Rare Minerals Survey Unit brought under Atomic Energy Commission and named as ‘Raw Materials Division’ (RMD), with Headquarters at New Delhi. In 1958, this unit becomes Atomic Minerals Division (AMD), and later in 1974, shifts to Hyderabad. It is renamed as Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) on July 29, 1998.

• August 18, 1950 : Indian Rare Earths Limited (IRE), owned by the Government of India and Government of Travancore, Cochine, is set up for recovering minerals, processing of rare earths compounds and Thorium -Uranium concentrates. In 1963, IRE becomes a full-fledged government undertaking under DAE

• April 1951: Uranium Deposit at Jaduguda is discovered by AMD. Drilling operations commence in December 1951.

• December 24, 1952 : Rare Earths Plant of IRE at Alwaye, Kerala, is dedicated to the nation and production of Rare Earths & Thorium – Uranium concentrate commences.

• August 03, 1954 :Department of Atomic Energy is created.

• August 01, 1955 : Thorium Plant at Trombay goes into production. Thorium Plant at Trombay is closed.

• 1956 : AMD discovers uranium mineralisation at Umra, Rajasthan.

• August 04, 1956 :APSARA - first research reactor in Asia, attains criticality at Trombay, Mumbai.

• January 20, 1957 : Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) is inaugurated

• August 19, 1957 : AEET Training School starts functioning at Trombay.

• January 30, 1959 :Uranium Metal Plant at Trombay produces Uranium.

• February 19, 1960 : First lot of 10 Fuel Elements for CIRUS reactor, is fabricated at Trombay

• July 10, 1960 : CIRUS – the 40 MWt research reactor, attains criticality. After its successful refurbishment, the reactor was dedicated to the Nation on October 31, 2002.

• January 14, 1961 : Research Reactor ZERLINA attains criticality. (It is decommissioned in 1983).

• 1965: IRE takes over operation of Mineral Processing Unit at Manavalakurichi in Tamil Nadu and at Chavara in Kerala.

• January 22, 1965 : Plutonium Plant is inaugurated at Trombay.

• January 22, 1967 : AEET is named as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).

• April 11, 1967 : Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) is set up at Hyderabad for producing electronic systems, instruments and components.

• June 1, 1967 : Power Projects Engineering Division (PPED), Mumbai is formed. The Division is subsequently converted to Nuclear Power Board on August 17, 1984.

• October 4, 1967: Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) is established with head quarters at Jaduguda Mines in Jharkhand (then Bihar).

• May 1968: Uranium Mill at Jaduguda, with a capacity of 1,000 TPD, commences commercial production of Magnesium diuranate (yellow cake). Jaduguda Mine Shaft is commissioned in November 1968.

• December 31, 1968 : Nuclear Fuel Complex is set up at Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

• March 12, 1969 : Reactor Research Centre (RRC) starts at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. The Centre is fully established in 1971. It is named as Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) on December 18, 1985.

• May 01, 1969 : Heavy Water Projects is constituted at Mumbai. This later becomes Heavy Water Board.

• October 02, 1969 : Tarapur Atomic Power Station starts commercial operation.

• 1970 : AMD hands over the Uranium Deposit at Narwapahar to UCIL.

• September 06, 1970 : Uranium-233 is separated from irradiated Thorium

• February 18, 1971 : Plutonium fuel for Research Reactor PURNIMA-I is fabricated at Trombay.

• 1972 : AMD hands over the beach sand heavy mineral deposits of Chhatrapur, Orissa and Neendakara-Kayankulam, Kerala to IRE.

• February 3, 1972 : DAE Safety Review Committee is formed.

• May 18, 1972 : Research Reactor PURNIMA-I attains criticality.

• November 30, 1972 : Unit-1 of Rajasthan Atomic Power Station at Rawatbhatta, near Kota, Rajasthan, begins commercial operation. Unit II goes commercial on November 1, 1980.

• 1974: By-product Recovery Plant of UCIL at Jaduguda is commissioned.

• May 18, 1974 : Peaceful underground Nuclear Experiment is conducted at Pokhran, Rajasthan.

• March 1975 : Commercial production of Uranium Mineral Concentrates from Copper plant tailings at Surda, Hindustan Copper Limited commenced.

• May 1975 : Commercial production of by-products - Molybdenum and Copper concentrates starts.

• September 1975 : Surda Uranium Recovery Plant of UCIL is commissioned.

• June 16, 1977 : Variable Energy Cyclotron becomes operational at Kolkata.

• 1978 : High-sensitivity airborne spectrometric and magnetometric surveys started.

• 1979 : AMD hands over Bhatin and Turamdih (East) uranium deposits (now in Jharkhand State) to UCIL.

• Nov 18, 1979 : Plutonium-Uranium Mixed Oxide (MoX) fuel is fabricated at Trombay.

• November 19, 1982 : BARC's Power Reactor Fuel Reprocessing Plant at Tarapur is commissioned.

• 1983 : FBTR attains first criticality.

• February 1983 : Rakha Uranium Recovery Plant of UCIL is commissioned.

• November 15, 1983 : Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) in Mumbai is constituted.

• 1984 : Sandstone-type uranium deposit at Domiasiat, Meghalaya is discovered.

• January 27, 1984 : Madras Atomic Power Station - Unit I at Kalpakkam starts commercial operation. Unit II goes commercial on March 21, 1986.

• February 19, 1984 : Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) at Indore (Madhya Pradesh) is inaugurated.

• March 08, 1984 : Plutonium - Uranium mixed Carbide Fuel for Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) is fabricated at Trombay.

• May 10, 1984 : Research Reactor PURNIMA-II, a Uranium-233 fuelled homogenous reactor, attains criticality.

• 1985 : AMD hands over the Bodal uranium deposit to UCIL.

• March 05, 1985 : Waste Immobilisation Plant (WIP) at Tarapur is commissioned.

• August 08, 1985 : Research Reactor DHRUVA (100 MWt) attains criticality.It attains full power on January 17, 1988.

• October 18, 1985 : FBTR at IGCAR attains criticality.

• 1986 : Dredge Mining, Mineral Separation and Synthetic Rutile Plant at OSCOM, Chhatrapur, Orissa is commissioned by IRE.HERO Project at Alwaye, Kerala, is commissioned. Production is started at OSCOM.

• October 1986 : Bhatin Mine is commissioned by UCIL and the ore is transported to Jaduguda mill for processing.

• December 1986 : Mosaboni Uranium Recovery Plant of UCIL is commissioned.

• 1987 : AMD hands over Turamdih (West) uranium deposits to UCIL, and beach sand deposits in Tamil Nadu to IRE.

• September 17, 1987 : Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is formed by converting the erstwhile Nuclear Power Board.

• 1988 : AMD hands over the Kuttumangalam and Vettumadia sand deposits,Tamil Nadu to IRE.

• December 30, 1988 : 12 MV Pelletron Accelerator is inaugurated in Mumbai. The accelerator is a joint endeavour of BARC & TIFR.

• 1989 : AMD Training School is inaugurated. Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT) is constituted.

• January 3, 1989 : Regional Radiation Medicine Centre (RRMC) is inaugurated at Kolkata.

• March 12, 1989 : Narora Atomic Power Station Unit I attains criticality. Its Unit II attains criticality on October 24, 1991.

• 1990 : Dolostone -hosted uranium mineralisation in the western margin of Cuddapah basin is discovered. Mineral Research Development Centre (MRDC) of IRE is launched at Kollam. HERO Plant is commissioned at Alwaye. Dredge & Wet Concentrator Plant at Chavara, Kerala, is commissioned.

• November 09, 1990 : Research Reactor PURNIMA-III, a Uranium-233 fuelled reactor, attains criticality.

• 1991: AMD discovers uranium mineralisation at Lambapur, Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh and produces upgraded xenotime concentrate at ‘Pre-concentrate Upgradation Plant’ (PUP) at Kunkuri.

• May 16, 1991: First ECR heavy ion source of the country becomes operational at the Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre.

• 1992 : First remotely operated radiography camera is launched. Significant heavy mineral concentration along the East Coast, Andhra Pradesh, is identified. New Thorium Plant at OSCOM,Chhattrapur, Orissa is commissioned by IRE.

• September 03, 1992 : Kakrapar Atomic Power Station - Unit I attains criticality. Its Unit II attains criticality on January 08, 1995

• 1993 : BARC supplies one millionth radioisotope consignment.

• 1995 : Research Irradiator Gamma Chamber 5000 is launched by BRIT.

• January 1995 : Narwapahar mine is inaugurated.

• 1996 : 30kWt Kamini Reactor attains criticality. The reactor is taken to full power in September, 1997.

• March 27, 1996 : Kalpakkam Reprocessing Plant (KARP) is cold commissioned. KARP is dedicated to the nation on September 15,1998.

• October 20, 1996 : Kalpakkam Mini Reactor (KAMINI), with Uranium-233 fuel, attains criticality at IGCAR, Tamilnadu.

• 1997 : AMD discovers of uranium mineralisation in brecciated limestone at Gogi, Gulbarga district, Karnataka in the Bhima basin. Microzir Plant is commissioned in Chavra, Kerala.

• March. 31, 1997: Rajasthan Atomic Power Station Unit-1 is recommissioned.

• December 1997: Jaduguda Mill is expanded to treat 2,090 tonnes ore per day.PRYNCE (95% Neodymium Oxide) Plant is commissioned at Rare Earths Division.

• May 11 & 13, 1998 : Five underground nuclear tests are conducted at Pokhran Range, Rajasthan.

• May 27, 1998 : Rajasthan Atomic Power Station Unit-2 is re-commissioned after enmasse replacement of coolant channels.

• August 10, 1998 : The 500 keV industrial electron accelerator developed indigenously by the BARC is commissioned for its first phase of operation. Ammonium diuranate (ADU) production commences at Rare Earths Division of IRE at Alwaye, Kerala.

• April 22, 1999 : 450 MeV Synchrotron Radiation Source Indus-1 achieves electron beam current of 113 milli-ampere superceding the design value of 100 milli-ampere.

• July 1999 : Solid Storage and Surveillance Facility (S3F) is commissioned at Tarapur.

• September 24, 1999 : Unit-2 of Kaiga Atomic Power Station attains criticality. It is synchronised to the grid on December 02, 1999, and becomes commercial on March 16, 2000.

• December 24, 1999 : Unit-3 of Rajasthan Atomic Power Station attains criticality. It is synchronised to the grid on March 10, 2000, and becomes commercial on June 2, 2000.

• January 1, 2000 : BRIT's Radiation Processing Plant at Vashi, Navi Mumbai is commissioned.

• 2000 : Boron Enrichment Plant is commissioned at IGCAR, Kalpakkam.

• March 8, 2000 : Tarapur Atomic Power Project –3&4 rises up.

• March, 2000 & May 2000 : First concrete pour of Unit-3 and Unit-4 of Tarapur Atomic Power Project-3 & 4.

• April 21, 2000 : Folded Tandem Ion Accelerator (FOTIA) at Trombay delivers first beam on target.

• September 26, 2000 : Unit-1 of Kaiga Atomic Power station attains criticality. It synchronises to the grid on October 12, 2000.

• November 03, 2000 : Unit-4 of Rajasthan Atomic Power station attains criticality. It creates history by synchronising with the grid within a period of 14 days on November 17, 2000. The unit becomes commercial on December 23, 2000.

• November 16, 2000 : Unit - 1 of Kaiga Atomic Power Station becomes commercial.

• 2001 : FBTR fuel reaches burn up of 100,000 MWd/T.

• March 18, 2001: Units 3 & 4 of Rajasthan Atomic Power Stations dedicated to the nation.

• February 12, 2002 : India signs the biggest contract with the Russian Federation for the Nuclear Power Station at Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu.

• March 30 & May 10, 2002 : First pours of concrete respectively of Unit-3 and Unit-4 of Kaiga Atomic Power Project 3 & 4.

• March 31, 2002 : First pour of concrete of Units 1&2 of Kudankulam Atomic Power Project.

• September 18, 2002 : First pour of concrete of Unit-5 of Rajasthan Atomic Power Project 5 & 6

• October 31, 2002 : Waste Immobilisation Plant and Uranium-Thorium Separation Plant at (both at Trombay), and the Radiation Processing Plant Krushak at Lasalgaon, district Nasik, Maharashtra, are dedicated to the Nation.

• November 2002 : UCIL's Turamdih Mine, Jharkhand is inaugurated and Technology Demonstration Pilot Plant becomes operational at Jaduguda.

• 2003 : 1.7 MeV Tandetron Accelerator and the demo facility Lead Mini Cell (LMC), for reprocessing of FBTR carbide fuel on lab scale, are

commissioned at IGCAR.

• March,6 -2005 : India's first 540 MWe Nuclear Power Reactor Tarapur Unit 4 Attains Criticality.

• June 4, 2005 : TAPS 4 synchronised to the grid

• June 4, 2005: Setting up of Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI) at Mumbai is announced. The institute a deemed university under the aegis of DAE is formed with the objective of accelerating the pace of basic research and translation of basic research into technology development.

• June 2005: The first computerized indigenous telecobalt unit Bhabhatron – 1 is installed at the Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research & Education in Cancer (ACTREC).

• August 27, 2005: The 450 MeV electron beam injected in the Storage Ring of Indus – 2 (2.5 GeV Synchrotron Radiation Source) completes full four rounds. Later on December 2, 2005 first synchrotron light from Indus – 2 is recorded. On December 17, 2005, this2.5 GeV SRS is dedicated to the nation.

• December 5, 2005: India is admitted to the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) venture. Other parties in this venture are China, European Union, Japan, South Korea and United States.

• December 17, 2005: Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) Indore, dedicated in the memory of Dr Raja Ramanna. The centre renamed as Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT).

• May 21, 2006: The 540 MWe, Unit – 3 of Tarapur Atomic power Project (TAPP – 3) attains criticality.

• June 15, 2006: TAPP – 3 synchronized with the grid.

• August 4, 2006: APSARA the first nuclear research reactor in the whole of Asia completes 50 years.

• August 18, 2006: TAPP – 3 goes commercial.

• November 21, 2006: India signs agreement to join International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project.

• February 26, 2007: Unit – 3 of the 220MWe Kaiga Atomic Power Project in North Karnataka attains criticality. The criticality is achieved in less than 5 years, the first pour of concrete having been done in March 2002.

• April 14, 2007: Unit – 3 of Kaiga Atomic Power Project is synchronized with the southern grid.

• April 26, 2007: India exports the first consignment of 720 kg Alfonso and Keasr mangoes to the US after being irradiated at BARC’s KRUSHAK plant at Lasalgaon, Nashik.

• May 6, 2007: Unit – 3 of Kaiga Atomic Power Project declared commercial.

• June 25, 2007: The first Opencast Uranium Mine of Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL), inaugurated at Banduhurang. A Uranium Ore Processing Plant, also of UCIL inaugurated at Turamdih in Singhbum (East) district of Jharkhand.

• August 2007: The BARC Training School completes 50 years. The setting up of the Training School in 1957 has provided almost the entire human resource for the nuclear programme in India.

• August 31, 2007: Units 3 & 4 of the Tarapur Atomic Power Station dedicated to the Nation.

• September 2007: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) develop a 32 metre diameter Indian Deep Space Antenna System – IDSN 32 for providing steering, tracking and science data reception support for ISRO’s Moon Mission – Chandrayaan – I.

• March 13, 2008: DAE and University Institute of Chemical Technology,(UICT) Mumbai sign MoU to establish a new DAE-UICT Centre for Chemical Engineering Education and Research.

• April 7,2008: Low power critical facility at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) attains first criticality.

Find-out weekday from a given date

2010-12-15T01:12:00.000-08:00

-----------------------
MONTH CODES
-----------------------
Jan – 6 .For leap year - 5
Feb – 2 .For leap year - 1
Mar – 2
Apr – 5
May – 0
Jun – 3
Jul – 5
Aug -1
Sep – 4
Oct – 6
Nov -2
Dec -4

The Basic Steps

The basic steps for a date in the years 2000-2099 are as follows:
Example date July 13th, 2004
1.Take the last 2 digits of the year and add a quarter onto itself. (04 + 1 = 5) ignore the decimals.

2.Get the corresponding code for the month. (January = 6, February = 2, March = 2, etc. See month codes for details). July = 5

3.Take the day. (=13)

4.Add the numbers together (5 + 5 + 13 = 23)

5.Take away 7 (or multiples of 7) until a number from 1-7 is left. (23 - 21 =2)

6.This number corresponds to the day of the week. (1 = Monday, 2 = Tuesday, etc.) In this case 2 = Tuesday

Try it………….

Number of players in different games

2010-12-13T23:51:00.000-08:00

GAME------------------THE NUMBER OF PLAYER

1-Base-ball--------------------09

2-Basket ball------------------05

3-Cricket----------------------11

4-Hockey-----------------------11

5-Foot-ball--------------------11

6-Rugby football---------------15

7-Netball----------------------07

8-Volleyball-------------------06

9-Water-polo-------------------07

10-Polo------------------------04

11-Table tennis-------------01 or 02 (Singles & Doubles respectively)

12-Tennis--------------------01 or 02 (Singles & Doubles respectively)

13-Badminton-----------------01 or 02 (Singles & Doubles respectively)

14-Chess-----------------------01

15-Boxing----------------------01

16-Kho Kho---------------------09

17-Kabaddi---------------------07

18-Billiards/Snooker-----------01

19-Bridge----------------------02

Roman Numbers

2010-12-09T01:58:00.000-08:00

Roman numerals were originated in ancient Rome. It is based on certain letters which are given values as numerals.

Roman Numerals are widely used nowadays, in clocks, books, number lists, etc.

1 --- I
2 --- II
3 --- III
4 --- IV
5 --- V
6 --- VI
7 --- VII
8 --- VIII
9 --- IX
10 --- X
11 --- XI
12 --- XII
13 --- XIII
14 --- XIV
15 --- XV
16 --- XVI
17 --- XVII
18 --- XVIII
19 --- XIX
20 --- XX
21 --- XXI
22 --- XXII
23 --- XXIII
24 --- XXIV
25 --- XXV
26 --- XXVI
27 --- XXVII
28 --- XXVIII
29 --- XXIX
30 --- XXX
31 --- XXXI
32 --- XXXII
33 --- XXXIII
34 --- XXXIV
35 --- XXXV
36 --- XXXVI
37 --- XXXVII
38 --- XXXVIII
39 --- XXXIX
40 --- XL
41 --- XLI
42 --- XLII
43 --- XLIII
44 --- XLIV
45 --- XLV
46 --- XLVI
47 --- XLVII
48 --- XLVIII
49 --- XLIX
50 --- L
51 --- LI
52 --- LII
53 --- LIII
54 --- LIV
55 --- LV
56 --- LVI
57 --- LVII
58 --- LVIII
59 --- LIX
60 --- LX
61 --- LXI
62 --- LXII
63 --- LXIII
64 --- LXIV
65 --- LXV
66 --- LXVI
67 --- LXVII
68 --- LXVIII
69 --- LXIX
70 --- LXX
71 --- LXXI
72 --- LXXII
73 --- LXXIII
74 --- LXXIV
75 --- LXXV
76 --- LXXVI
77 --- LXXVII
78 --- LXXVIII
79 --- LXXIX
80 --- LXXX
81 --- LXXXI
82 --- LXXXII
83 --- LXXXIII
84 --- LXXXIV
85 --- LXXXV
86 --- LXXXVI
87 --- LXXXVII
88 --- LXXXVIII
89 --- LXXXIX
90 --- XC
91 --- XCI
92 --- XCII
93 --- XCIII
94 --- XCIV
95 --- XCV
96 --- XCVI
97 --- XCVII
98 --- XCVIII
99 --- XCIX
100 --- C

--------------------------------
200 --- CC
300 --- CCC
400 --- CD
500 --- D
600 --- DC
700 --- DCC
800 --- DCCC
900 --- CM
1000 --- M
-------------------------------

Multiply - The 11 Rule Expanded

2010-12-09T01:29:00.001-08:00

You can directly write down the answer to any number multiplied by 11.

Take for example the number 51236 X 11.

First, write down the number with a zero in front of it.
051236
The zero is necessary so that the rules are simpler.

Draw a line under the number.

It is simple if you work through it slowly. To do this, all you have to do this is "Add the neighbor". Look at the 6 in the "units" position of the number. Since there is no number to the right of it, you can't add to its "neighbor" so just write down 6 below the 6 in the units column.

For the "tens" place, add the 3 to its "neighbor" (the 6). Write the answer: 9 below the 3.

For the "hundreds" place, add the 2 to its "neighbor" (the 3). Write the answer: 5 below the 2.

For the "thousands" place, add the 1 to its "neighbor" (the 2). Write the answer: 3 below the 1.

For the "ten-thousands" place, add the 5 to the its "neighbor" (the 1). Write the answer: 6 below the 5.

For the "hundred-thousands" place, add the 0 to the its "neighbor" (the 5). Write the answer: 5 below the 0.

That's it ... 11 X 051236 = 563596

Practice it on paper first!

Multiply - Finger Math: 9X Rule

2010-12-09T01:20:00.000-08:00

To multiply by 9, try this:

(1) Spread your two hands out and place them on a desk or table in front of you.

(2) To multiply by 3, fold down the 3rd finger from the left. To multiply by 4, it would be the 4th finger and so on.

(3) The answer is 27 ... READ it from the two fingers on the left of the folded down finger and the 7 fingers on the right of it.

This works for anything up to 9x10!

Multiply - The 11 Rule

2010-12-09T01:16:00.000-08:00

You are all know the 10 rule (to multiply by 10, just add a 0 behind the number) but do you know the 11 rule? It is as easy! You should be able to do this one in you head for any two digit number.

To multiply any two digit number by 11:

For this example we will use 54.

Separate the two digits in you mind (5__4).

Notice the space between them!

Add the 5 and the 4 together (5+4=9)

Put the resulting 9 in the hole 594. That's it! 11 x 54=594

The only thing tricky to remember is that if the result of the addition is greater than 9, you only put the "ones" digit in the space and carry the "tens" digit from the addition. For example 11 x 57 ... 5__7 ... 5+7=12 ... put the 2 in the space and add the 1 from the 12 to the 5 in to get 6 for a result of 627 ... 11 x 57 = 627

Practice it on paper first!

Multiply Up to 20X20 – (tricks)

2010-12-09T00:56:00.000-08:00

In just FIVE minutes you should learn to quickly multiply up to 20x20 in your head. With this trick, you will be able to multiply any two numbers from 11 to 19 quickly, without the use of a calculator.

Try this:

Take 15 x 13 for an example.

Always place the larger number of the two on top in your mind.

Then draw the shape of Africa mentally so it covers the 15 and the 3 from the 13
below. Those covered numbers are all you need.

First add 15 + 3 = 18

Add a zero behind it (multiply by 10) to get 180.

Multiply the covered lower 3 x the single digit above it the "5" (3x5= 15)

Add 180 + 15 = 195.

Practice it on paper first

List of Miss Universe

2010-12-02T02:14:00.000-08:00

Miss Universe is an annual international beauty contest run by the Miss Universe Organization.

The contest was founded in 1952 by California clothing company Pacific Mills. The pageant became part of Kayser-Roth and then Gulf and Western Industries, before being acquired by Donald Trump in 1996.

In 1998, Miss Universe changed its name from Miss Universe, Inc. to Miss Universe Organization and the headquarters moved from Long Beach California, to New York City that year. Donald Trump brought in a new team of professionals to the contest headed by its new CEO, Molly Miles, and president Maureen Reidy. Miles coined the slogan "Redefined for Today" for promotion of the pageants. That year, the new Miss Universe logo was born: The Woman with the Stars, which is still used today.

-----------------------------------------------------
Year - Country - Miss Universe
-----------------------------------------------------
1952 - Finland - Armi Kuusela
1953 - France - Christiane Martel
1954 - USA - Miriam Stevenson
1955 - Sweden - Hillevi Rombin
1956 - USA - Carol Morris
1957 - Peru - Gladys Zender
1958 - Colombia - Luz Marina Zuluaga
1959 - Japan - Akiko Kojima
1960 - USA - Linda Bement
1961 - Germany - Marlene Schmidt
1962 - Argentina - Norma Nolan
1963 - Brazil - Ieda Maria Vargas
1964 - Greece - Corinna Tsopei
1965 - Thailand - Apasra Hongsakula
1966 - Sweden - Margareta Arvidsson
1967 - USA - Sylvia Hitchcock
1968 - Brazil - Martha Vasconcellos
1969 - Philippines - Gloria Maria Diaz
1970 - Puerto Rico - Marisol Malaret
1971 - Lebanon - Georgina Rizk
1972 - Australia - Kerry Anne Wells
1973 - Philippines - Maria Margarita Moran
1974 - Spain - Amparo Muñoz
1975 - Finland - Anne Marie Pohtamo
1976 - Israel - Rina Messinger
1977 - Trinidad & Tobago - Janelle Commissiong
1978 - South Africa - Margaret Gardiner
1979 - Venezuela - Maritza Sayalero
1980 - USA - Shawn Weatherly
1981 - Venezuela - Irene Sáez
1982 - Canada - Karen Dianne Baldwin
1983 - New Zealand - Lorraine Downes
1984 - Sweden - Yvonne Ryding
1985 - Puerto Rico - Deborah Carthy Deu
1986 - Venezuela - Bárbara Palacios Teyde
1987 - Chile - Cecilia Bolocco
1988 - Thailand - Porntip Nakhirunkanok
1989 - Netherlands - Angela Visser
1990 - Norway - Mona Grudt
1991 - Mexico - Lupita Jones
1992 - Namibia - Michelle McLean
1993 - Puerto Rico - Dayanara Torres
1994 - India - Sushmita Sen
1995 - USA - Chelsi Smith
1996 - Venezuela - Alicia Machado
1997 - USA - Brook Mahealani Lee
1998 - Trinidad & Tobago - Wendy Fitzwilliam
1999 - Botswana - Mpule Kwelagobe
2000 - India - Lara Dutta
2001 - Puerto Rico - Denise Quiñones
2002 - Russia - Oxana Fedorova (Dethroned)
2002 - Panama - Justine Pasek
2003 - Dominican Republic - Amelia Vega
2004 - Australia - Jennifer Hawkins
2005 - Canada - Natalie Glebova
2006 - Puerto Rico - Zuleyka Rivera
2007 - Japan - Riyo Mori
2008 - Venezuela - Dayana Mendoza
2009 - Venezuela - Stefania Fernandez
2010 - Mexico - Ximena Navarrete

List of Miss world

2010-12-02T01:22:00.000-08:00

The Miss World pageant is the oldest surviving major international beauty pageant. It was created in the United Kingdom by Eric Morley in 1951. Since his death in 2000, Morley's wife, Julia Morley, co-chairs the pageant.

Alongside its rival Miss Universe and Miss Earth contests, this pageant is one of the most publicised beauty contests in the world.

The winner spends a year travelling to represent the Miss World Organization and its various causes. Traditionally, Miss World lives in London during her reign.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Year - Country - Miss World
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1951 - Sweden - Kicki Håkansson
1952 - Sweden - May Louise Flodin
1953 - France - Denise Perrier
1954 - Egypt - Antigone Costanda
1955 - Venezuela - Susana Duijm
1956 - West Germany - Petra Schürmann†
1957 - Finland - Marita Lindahl
1958 - South Africa - Penelope Coelen
1959 - Netherlands - Corine Rottschäfer
1960 - Argentina - Norma Cappagli
1961 - United Kingdom - Rosemarie Frankland†
1962 - Netherlands - Catharina Lodders
1963 - Jamaica - Carole Crawford
1964 - United Kingdom - Ann Sidney
1965 - United Kingdom - Lesley Langley
1966 - India - Reita Faria
1967 - Peru - Madeline Hartog-Bel
1968 - Australia - Penelope Plummer
1969 - Austria - Eva Rueber-Staier
1970 - Grenada - Jennifer Hosten
1971 - Brazil - Lúcia Petterle
1972 - Australia - Belinda Green
1973 - United States - Marjorie Wallace
1974 - United Kingdom - Helen Morgan (Resigned)
1974 - South Africa - Anneline Kriel
1975 - Puerto Rico - Wilnelia Merced
1976 - Jamaica - Cindy Breakspeare
1977 - Sweden - Mary Stävin
1978 - Argentina - Silvana Suárez
1979 - Bermuda - Gina Swainson
1980 - West Germany - Gabriella Brum (Resigned)
1980 - Guam - Kimberley Santos
1981 - Venezuela - Pilín León
1982 - Dominican Republic - Mariasela Álvarez
1983 - United Kingdom - Sarah-Jane Hutt
1984 - Venezuela - Astrid Carolina Herrera
1985 - Iceland - Hólmfríður Karlsdóttir
1986 - Trinidad & Tobago - Giselle Laronde
1987 - Austria - Ulla Weigerstorfer
1988 - Iceland - Linda Pétursdóttir
1989 - Poland - Aneta Kręglicka
1990 - United States - Gina Tolleson
1991 - Venezuela - Ninibeth Leal
1992 - Russia - Julia Kourotchkina
1993 - Jamaica - Lisa Hanna
1994 - India - Aishwarya Rai
1995 - Venezuela - Jacqueline Aguilera
1996 - Greece - Irene Skliva
1997 - India - Diana Hayden
1998 - Israel - Linor Abargil
1999 - India - Yukta Mookhey
2000 - India - Priyanka Chopra
2001 - Nigeria - Agbani Darego
2002 - Turkey - Azra Akın
2003 - Ireland - Rosanna Davison
2004 - Peru - María Julia Mantilla
2005 - Iceland - Unnur Birna Vilhjálmsdóttir
2006 - Czech Republic - Taťána Kuchařová
2007 - China - Zhang Zilin
2008 - Russia - Ksenia Sukhinova
2009 - Gibraltar - Kaiane Aldorino
2010 - United States - Alexandria Mills

2010 Commonwealth Games - New Delhi

2010-12-01T01:48:00.000-08:00

The 2010 Commonwealth Games, officially known as the XIX Commonwealth Games, were held in Delhi, India, from 3 to 14 October 2010. A total of 6,081 athletes from 71 Commonwealth nations and dependencies competed in 21 sports and 272 events. It was the largest international multi-sport event to be staged in Delhi and India, eclipsing the Asian Games in 1951 and 1982.

The opening and closing ceremonies were held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, the main stadium of the event. It was the first time that the Commonwealth Games were held in India and the second time it was held in Asia after Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 1998. The official mascot of the Games was Shera and the official song of the Games, "Jiyo Utho Bado Jeeto", was composed by celebrated Indian musician A.R. Rahman.

XIX Commonwealth Games (Delhi 2010): Final Medals Tally

1 - Australia - G - 74 - S - 55 - B - 48 - T - 177
2 - India - G - 38 - S - 27 - B - 36 - T - 101
3 - England - G - 37 - S - 59 - B - 46 - T - 142
4 - Canada - G - 26 - S - 17 - B - 32 - T - 75
5 - South Africa - G - 12 - S - 11 - B - 10 - T - 33
6 - Kenya - G - 12 - S - 11 - B - 9 - T - 32
7 - Malaysia - G - 12 - S - 10 - B - 13 - T - 35
8 - Singapore - G - 11 - S - 11 - B - 9 - T - 31
9 - Nigeria - G - 11 - S - 10 - B - 14 - T - 35
10 - Scotland - G - 9 - S - 10 - B - 7 - T - 26
11 - New Zealand - G - 6 - S - 22 - B - 8 - T - 36
12 - Cyprus - G - 4 - S - 3 - B - 5 - T - 12
13 - N. Ireland - G - 3 - S - 3 - B - 4 - T - 10
14 - Samoa - G - 3 - S - 0 - B - 1 - T - 4
15 - Wales - G - 2 - S - 7 - B - 10 - T - 19
16 - Jamaica - G - 2 - S - 4 - B - 1 - T - 7
17 - Pakistan - G - 2 - S - 1 - B - 2 - T - 5
18 - Uganda - G - 2 - S - 0 - B - 0 - T - 2
19 - Bahamas - G - 1 - S - 1 - B - 3 - T - 5
20 - Sri Lanka - G - 1 - S - 1 - B - 1 - T - 3
21 - Nauru - G - 1 - S - 1 - B - 0 - T - 2
22 - Botswana - G - 1 - S - 0 - B - 3 - T - 4
23 - St. Vincent & The Grenadines - G - 1 - S - 0 - B - 0 - T - 1
23 - Cayman Islands - G - 1 - S - 0 - B - 0 - T - 1
25 - Trinidad and Tobago - G - 0 - S - 4 - B - 2 - T - 6
26 - Cameroon - G - 0 - S - 2 - B - 4 - T - 6
27 - Ghana - G - 0 - S - 1 - B - 3 - T - 4
28 - Namibia - G - 0 - S - 1 - B - 2 - T - 3
29 - Seychelles - G - 0 - S - 1 - B - 0 - T - 1
29 - Papua New Guinea - G - 0 - S - 1 - B - 0 - T - 1
31 - Isle of Man - G - 0 - S - 0 - B - 2 - T - 2
31 - Tonga - G - 0 - S - 0 - B - 2 - T - 2
31 - Mauritius - G - 0 - S - 0 - B - 2 - T - 2
34 - Saint Lucia - G - 0 - S - 0 - B - 1 - T - 1
34 - Guyana - G - 0 - S - 0 - B - 1 - T - 1
34 - Bangladesh - G - 0 - S - 0 - B - 1 - T - 1
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TOTAL - G - 272 - S - 274 - B - 282 - T MEDAL - 828
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Commonwealth Games 2014 which is the 20th edition of these games will be held in Glasgow, Scotland. And you can be sure that after just a short break and celebrations, the athletes will be back to their rigorous training schedules to bring glory to their respective countries.

About Nobel Prizes and its facts

2010-11-29T23:32:00.000-08:00

At the age of 17, Swedish Alfred Nobel spoke five languages fluently. Nobel became an inventor and businessman, and at the time of his death on 10 December 1896, he had 355 patents worldwide – one of them was the patent on dynamite. Furthermore, he had started 87 companies all over the world. According to his will, Alfred Nobel's enormous fortune was to be used to establish prizes to award those who had done their best to benefit mankind in the fields of physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and peace. The first Nobel Prizes were awarded in 1901, five years after Nobel's death. In 1969, another prize was added "The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel".

The Nobel Prize Award Ceremonies

The Nobel Laureates are announced at the beginning of October each year. A couple of months later, on 10 December, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death, they receive their prizes from the Swedish King – a Nobel diploma, a medal, and 10 million Swedish crowns per prize. All Nobel Prizes are awarded in Stockholm, Sweden, except for the Nobel Peace Prize, which is awarded in Oslo, Norway. (When Alfred Nobel was alive, Norway and Sweden were united under one monarch, until 1905 when Norway became an independent kingdom with its own king.)

Why are the individuals and organisations awarded a Nobel Prize called Nobel Laureates?

The word "Laureate" refers to being signified by the laurel wreath. In Greek mythology, the god Apollo is represented wearing a laurel wreath on his head. A laureal wreath is a circular crown made of branches and leaves of the bay laurel (In latin: Laurus nobilis). In ancient Greek laurel wreaths were awarded to victors as a sign of honour - both in athletic competitions and in poetic meets.

543 Nobel Prizes

Between 1901 and 2010, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 543 times. There have been a few years in which the Nobel Prize was not awarded, particularly during World War I and II. In the statutes of the Nobel Foundation it says: "If none of the works under consideration is found to be of the importance indicated in the first paragraph, the prize money shall be reserved until the following year. If, even then, the prize cannot be awarded, the amount shall be added to the Foundation's restricted funds."

Physics
Awarded to one Laureate - 47
Shared by two Laureates - 29
Shared by three Laureates - 28

Chemistry
Awarded to one Laureate - 62
Shared by two Laureates - 22
Shared by three Laureates - 18

Medicine
Awarded to one Laureate - 38
Shared by two Laureates - 31
Shared by three Laureates - 32

Literature
Awarded to one Laureate - 99
Shared by two Laureates - 4
Shared by three Laureates - 0

Peace
Awarded to one Laureate - 62
Shared by two Laureates - 28
Shared by three Laureates - 1

Economic Sciences
Awarded to one Laureate - 22
Shared by two Laureates - 15
Shared by three Laureates - 5

Total number:
Awarded to one Laureate - 330
Shared by two Laureates - 129
Shared by three Laureates - 84

Why is that? In the statutes of the Nobel Foundation it says: "A prize amount may be equally divided between two works, each of which is considered to merit a prize. If a work that is being rewarded has been produced by two or three persons, the prize shall be awarded to them jointly. In no case may a prize amount be divided between more than three persons."

840 Nobel Laureates

817 Laureates and 23 organizations have been awarded the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2010. Of them, 67 are Laureates in Economic Sciences. A small number of individuals and organizations have been honoured more than once, which means that 813 individuals and 20 unique organizations have received the Nobel Prize in total. See "Multiple Nobel Laureates".

Years when the Nobel Prize have not been awarded

Nobel Prize -----Year
Physics -----1916, 1931, 1934, 1940, 1941, 1942
Chemistry -----1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940, 1941, 1942
Medicine -----1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1921, 1925, 1940, 1941, 1942
Literature -----1914, 1918, 1935, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943
Peace -----1914, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1923, 1924, 1928, 1932, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1948, 1955, 1956, 1966, 1967, 1972
Economic Sciences – Nil

41 Nobel Prizes to women

41 Nobel Prizes and Prizes in Economic Sciences have been awarded to women and 776 to men between 1901 and 2010. A small number of Nobel Laureates have been honoured more than once, which makes a total of 40 females and 773 males who have received the Nobel Prize.

The youngest Nobel Laureate

To date, the youngest Nobel Laureate is Lawrence Bragg, who was just 25 years old when he received the Nobel Prize in Physics with his father in 1915.

The oldest Nobel Laureate

The oldest Laureate to date is Leonid Hurwicz, who was 90 years old when he was awarded the 2007 Prize in Economic Sciences

Two Nobel Laureates have declined the Nobel Prize

Jean-Paul Sartre, awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature, declined the prize because he had consistently declined all official honours.

Le Duc Tho, awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize jointly with US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. They were awarded the Prize for negotiating the Vietnam peace accord. Le Doc Tho said that he was not in a position to accept the Nobel Peace Prize, citing the situation in Vietnam as his reason.

Four Nobel Laureates have been forced by authorities to decline the Nobel Prize

Adolf Hitler forbade three German Nobel Laureates, Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt and Gerhard Domagk, from accepting the Nobel Prize. All of them could later receive the Nobel Prize Diploma and Medal, but not the prize amount.

Boris Pasternak, the 1958 Nobel Laureate in Literature, initially accepted the Nobel Prize but was later coerced by the authorities of the Soviet Union, his native country, to decline the Nobel Prize.

Multiple Nobel Laureates

The work of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has been honoured by a Nobel Peace Prize three times. Besides, the founder of the ICRC, Henry Dunant, was awarded the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901.

Linus Pauling is the only person to have been awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes - the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the 1962 Nobel Peace Prize.

J. Bardeen
Physics 1956
Physics 1972

M. Curie
Physics 1903
Chemistry 1911

L. Pauling
Chemistry 1954
Peace 1962

F. Sanger
Chemistry 1958
Chemistry 1980

ICRC - International Committee of the Red Cross
Peace 1917
Peace 1944
Peace 1963

UNHCR - The UN's refugee agency
Peace 1954
Peace 1981

Family Nobel Laureates

As you may notice, the Curies were a very successful 'Nobel Prize family'. Marie Curie herself was awarded two Nobel Prizes.

Married Couples

Marie Curie
Pierre Curie

Irène Joliot-Curie
Frédéric Joliot

Gerty Cori
Carl Cori

Alva Myrdal
Gunnar Myrdal

Mother & Daughter

Marie Curie
Irène Joliot-Curie

Father & Daughter

Pierre Curie
Irène Joliot-Curie

Father & Son

William Bragg
Lawrence Bragg

Niels Bohr
Aage N. Bohr

Hans von Euler-Chelpin
Ulf von Euler

Arthur Kornberg
Roger D. Kornberg

Manne Siegbahn
Kai M. Siegbahn

J. J. Thomson
George Paget Thomson

Brothers

Jan Tinbergen
Nikolaas Tinbergen

Nobel Peace Prizes – 1901 to 2010

2010-11-29T22:13:00.000-08:00

The Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded 91 times to 121 Nobel Laureates between 1901 and 2010 – 98 times to individuals and 23 times to organizations. Since International Committee of the Red Cross was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1917, 1944 and 1963, and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1954 and 1981, that means 98 individuals and 20 organizations have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

2010
Liu Xiaobo

2009
Barack H. Obama

2008
Martti Ahtisaari

2007
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) , Albert Arnold (Al) Gore Jr.

2006
Muhammad Yunus, Grameen Bank

2005
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) , Mohamed ElBaradei

2004
Wangari Muta Maathai

2003
Shirin Ebadi

2002
Jimmy Carter

2001
United Nations (U.N.) , Kofi Annan

2000
Kim Dae-jung

1999
Médecins Sans Frontières

1998
John Hume, David Trimble

1997
International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) , Jody Williams

1996
Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo, José Ramos-Horta
1995

Joseph Rotblat, Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs

1994
Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin

1993
Nelson Mandela, Frederik Willem de Klerk

1992
Rigoberta Menchú Tum

1991
Aung San Suu Kyi

1990
Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev

1989
The 14th Dalai Lama (Tenzin Gyatso)

1988
United Nations Peacekeeping Forces

1987
Oscar Arias Sánchez

1986
Elie Wiesel

1985
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War

1984
Desmond Mpilo Tutu

1983
Lech Walesa

1982
Alva Myrdal, Alfonso García Robles

1981
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

1980
Adolfo Pérez Esquivel

1979
Mother Teresa

1978
Mohamed Anwar al-Sadat, Menachem Begin

1977
Amnesty International

1976
Betty Williams, Mairead Corrigan

1975
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov

1974
Seán MacBride, Eisaku Sato

1973
Henry A. Kissinger, Le Duc Tho

1972
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money for 1972 was allocated to the Main Fund.

1971
Willy Brandt

1970
Norman E. Borlaug

1969
International Labour Organization (I.L.O.)

1968
René Cassin

1967
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1966
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1965
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

1964
Martin Luther King Jr.

1963
Comité international de la Croix Rouge (International Committee of the Red Cross) , Ligue des Sociétés de la Croix-Rouge (League of Red Cross Societies)

1962
Linus Carl Pauling

1961
Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld

1960
Albert John Lutuli

1959
Philip J. Noel-Baker

1958
Georges Pire

1957
Lester Bowles Pearson

1956
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1955
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1954
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

1953
George Catlett Marshall

1952
Albert Schweitzer

1951
Léon Jouhaux

1950
Ralph Bunche

1949
Lord (John) Boyd Orr of Brechin

1948
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1947
Friends Service Council (The Quakers) , American Friends Service Committee (The Quakers)

1946
Emily Greene Balch, John Raleigh Mott

1945
Cordell Hull

1944
Comité international de la Croix Rouge (International Committee of the Red Cross)

1943
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1942
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1941
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1940
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1939
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1938
Office international Nansen pour les Réfugiés (Nansen International Office for Refugees)

1937
Cecil of Chelwood, Viscount (Lord Edgar Algernon Robert Gascoyne Cecil)

1936
Carlos Saavedra Lamas

1935
Carl von Ossietzky

1934
Arthur Henderson

1933
Sir Norman Angell (Ralph Lane)

1932
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1931
Jane Addams, Nicholas Murray Butler

1930
Lars Olof Jonathan (Nathan) Söderblom

1929
Frank Billings Kellogg

1928
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1927
Ferdinand Buisson, Ludwig Quidde

1926
Aristide Briand, Gustav Stresemann

1925
Sir Austen Chamberlain, Charles Gates Dawes

1924
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1923
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1922
Fridtjof Nansen

1921
Karl Hjalmar Branting, Christian Lous Lange

1920
Léon Victor Auguste Bourgeois

1919
Thomas Woodrow Wilson

1918
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1917
Comité international de la Croix Rouge (International Committee of the Red Cross)

1916
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1915
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1914
No Nobel Prize was awarded this year. The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.

1913
Henri La Fontaine

1912
Elihu Root

1911
Tobias Michael Carel Asser, Alfred Hermann Fried

1910
Bureau international permanent de la Paix (Permanent International Peace Bureau)

1909
Auguste Marie François Beernaert, Paul Henri Benjamin Balluet d'Estournelles de Constant, Baron de Constant de Rebecque

1908
Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Fredrik Bajer

1907
Ernesto Teodoro Moneta, Louis Renault

1906
Theodore Roosevelt

1905
Baroness Bertha Sophie Felicita von Suttner, née Countess Kinsky von Chinic und Tettau

1904
Institut de droit international (Institute of International Law)

1903
William Randal Cremer

1902
Élie Ducommun, Charles Albert Gobat

1901
Jean Henry Dunant

1901
Jean Henry Dunant, Frédéric Passy

What Information Does a Barcode Convey?

2010-11-29T03:07:00.000-08:00

Barcodes, the most common of which is a UPC (Universal Product Code), are used on retail product packaging for a wide variety of purposes. These codes are read by computers at a store register to process purchases much faster than manually entering in prices.

Barcode Basics

A UPC contains 12 digits. These digits are coded in sections of vertical bars. There are four black or white bars per section, and the width of these bars translates into a digit.

Digit Translations

The second and third digits indicate the country of the company that uses that barcode. Some countries use three digits. The next two or three digits contain the product type.

What are the country codes?

Here is a partial list. Remember, it indicates the country that issued the code, NOT THE COUNTRY OF ORIGIN OF THE PRODUCT. The abbreviation "MO" stands for Member Organization. The meaning of the prefixes ""020-029", "040-049" and "200-299" are set by the GS1 administration in a given country. GS1-US has defined these prefixes as for internal use in, for example, warehouses.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prefix )--------------( GS1 Country
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
000 - 019 )--------------( GS1 United States
020 - 029 )--------------( Restricted distribution (MO defined, usually for internal use)
030 - 039 )--------------( GS1 United States
040 - 049 )--------------( Restricted distribution (MO defined, usually for internal use)
050 - 059 )--------------( Coupons
060 - 139 )--------------( GS1 United States
200 - 299 )--------------( Restricted distribution (MO defined, usually for internal use)
300 - 379 )--------------( GS1 France
380 )--------------( GS1 Bulgaria
383 )--------------( GS1 Slovenia
385 )--------------( GS1 Croatia
387 )--------------( GS1 BIH (Bosnia-Herzegovina)
400 - 440 )--------------( GS1 Germany
450 - 459 & )--------------( GS1 Japan
490 - 499 )--------------( GS1 Japan
460 - 469 )--------------( GS1 Russia
470 )--------------( GS1 Kurdistan
471 )--------------( GS1 Taiwan
474 )--------------( GS1 Estonia
475 )--------------( GS1 Latvia
476 )--------------( GS1 Azerbaijan
477 )--------------( GS1 Lithuania
478 )--------------( GS1 Uzbekistan
479 )--------------( GS1 Sri Lanka
480 )--------------( GS1 Philippines
481 )--------------( GS1 Belarus
482 )--------------( GS1 Ukraine
484 )--------------( GS1 Moldova
485 )--------------( GS1 Armenia
486 )--------------( GS1 Georgia
487 )--------------( GS1 Kazakhstan
489 )--------------( GS1 Hong Kong
500 - 509 )--------------( GS1 UK
520 )--------------( GS1 Greece
528 )--------------( GS1 Lebanon
529 )--------------( GS1 Cyprus
530 )--------------( GS1 Albania
531 )--------------( GS1 MAC (FYR Macedonia)
535 )--------------( GS1 Malta
539 )--------------( GS1 Ireland
540 - 549 )--------------( GS1 Belgium & Luxembourg
560 )--------------( GS1 Portugal
569 )--------------( GS1 Iceland
570 - 579 )--------------( GS1 Denmark
590 )--------------( GS1 Poland
594 )--------------( GS1 Romania
599 )--------------( GS1 Hungary
600 - 601 )--------------( GS1 South Africa
603 )--------------( GS1 Ghana
608 )--------------( GS1 Bahrain
609 )--------------( GS1 Mauritius
611 )--------------( GS1 Morocco
613 )--------------( GS1 Algeria
616 )--------------( GS1 Kenya
618 )--------------( GS1 Ivory Coast
619 )--------------( GS1 Tunisia
621 )--------------( GS1 Syria
622 )--------------( GS1 Egypt
624 )--------------( GS1 Libya
625 )--------------( GS1 Jordan
626 )--------------( GS1 Iran
627 )--------------( GS1 Kuwait
628 )--------------( GS1 Saudi Arabia
629 )--------------( GS1 Emirates
640 - 649 )--------------( GS1 Finland
690 - 695 )--------------( GS1 China
700 - 709 )--------------( GS1 Norway
729 )--------------( GS1 Israel
730 - 739 )--------------( GS1 Sweden
740 )--------------( GS1 Guatemala
741 )--------------( GS1 El Salvador
742 )--------------( GS1 Honduras
743 )--------------( GS1 Nicaragua
744 )--------------( GS1 Costa Rica
745 )--------------( GS1 Panama
746 )--------------( GS1 Dominican Republic
750 )--------------( GS1 Mexico
754 - 755 )--------------( GS1 Canada
759 )--------------( GS1 Venezuela
760 - 769 )--------------( GS1 Switzerland
770 )--------------( GS1 Colombia
773 )--------------( GS1 Uruguay
775 )--------------( GS1 Peru
777 )--------------( GS1 Bolivia
779 )--------------( GS1 Argentina
780 )--------------( GS1 Chile
784 )--------------( GS1 Paraguay
786 )--------------( GS1 Ecuador
789 - 790 )--------------( GS1 Brazil
800 - 839 )--------------( GS1 Italy
840 - 849 )--------------( GS1 Spain
850 )--------------( GS1 Cuba
858 )--------------( GS1 Slovakia
859 )--------------( GS1 Czech
860 )--------------( GS1 YU (Serbia & Montenegro)
865 )--------------( GS1 Mongolia
867 )--------------( GS1 North Korea
868 - 869 )--------------( GS1 Turkey
870 - 879 )--------------( GS1 Netherlands
880 )--------------( GS1 South Korea
884 )--------------( GS1 Cambodia
885 )--------------( GS1 Thailand
888 )--------------( GS1 Singapore
890 )--------------( GS1 India
893 )--------------( GS1 Vietnam
899 )--------------( GS1 Indonesia
900 - 919 )--------------( GS1 Austria
930 - 939 )--------------( GS1 Australia
940 - 949 )--------------( GS1 New Zealand
950 )--------------( GS1 Global Office
955 )--------------( GS1 Malaysia
958 )--------------( GS1 Macau
977 )--------------( Serial publications (ISSN)
978 - 979 )--------------( Bookland (ISBN)
980 )--------------( Refund receipts
981 - 982 )--------------( Common Currency Coupons
990 - 999 )--------------( Coupons

Guard Bars

The left, right and middle of the barcode contain "guards." These allow the barcode scanner to identify the orientation of the bars so they are read properly.

Product Identification

The barcode is separated into two sections of five numbers. The second section of numbers indicates what the product is.

Creating a Transaction

This barcode is listed in the store's computer files as referring to that product and instructing the register to charge a specified price for the item.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - GATT

2010-11-24T04:30:00.000-08:00

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was negotiated during the UN Conference on Trade and Employment and was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was formed in 1949 and lasted until 1993, when it was replaced by the World Trade Organization in 1995. The original GATT text (GATT 1947) is still in effect under the WTO framework, subject to the modifications of GATT 1994.

GATT and the World Trade Organization

In 1993, the GATT was updated (GATT 1994) to include new obligations upon its signatories. One of the most significant changes was the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The 75 existing GATT members and the European Communities became the founding members of the WTO on 1 January 1995. The other 52 GATT members rejoined the WTO in the following two years (the last being Congo in 1997). Since the founding of the WTO, 21 new non-GATT members have joined and 29 are currently negotiating membership. There are a total of 153 member countries in the WTO.

Of the original GATT members, Syria and the SFR Yugoslavia has not rejoined the WTO. Since FR Yugoslavia, (renamed to Serbia and Montenegro and with membership negotiations later split in two), is not recognised as a direct SFRY successor state; therefore, its application is considered a new (non-GATT) one. The General Council of WTO, on 4 May 2010, agreed to establish a working party to examine the request of Syria for WTO membership. The contracting parties who founded the WTO ended official agreement of the "GATT 1947" terms on 31 December 1995.

Whereas GATT was a set of rules agreed upon by nations, the WTO is an institutional body. The WTO expanded its scope from traded goods to trade within the service sector and intellectual property rights. Although it was designed to serve multilateral agreements, during several rounds of GATT negotiations (particularly the Tokyo Round) plurilateral agreements created selective trading and caused fragmentation among members. WTO arrangements are generally a multilateral agreement settlement mechanism of GATT.

SAARC - South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

2010-11-24T01:36:00.000-08:00

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an organization of South Asian nations, founded in 1985 and dedicated to economic, technological, social, and cultural development emphasizing collective self-reliance. Its seven founding members are Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Afghanistan joined the organization in 2007. Meetings of heads of state are usually scheduled annually; meetings of foreign secretaries, twice annually. Headquarters are in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Secretaries General

Abul Ahsan January 16, 1987 to 15 October 1989
Kant Kishore Bhargava October 17, 1989 to December 31, 1991
Ibrahim Hussain Zaki January 1, 1992 to December 31, 1993
Yadav Kant Silwal January 1, 1994 to December 31, 1995
Naeem U. Hasan January 1, 1996 to December 31, 1998
Nihal Rodrigo January 1, 1999 to January 10, 2002
Q.A.M.A. Rahim January 11, 2002 to February 28, 2005
Lyonpo Chenkyab Dorji March 1, 2005 to February 29, 2008
Sheel Kant Sharma March 1, 2008 to present

SAARC summits

-----------------------------------------------------
No. Location Date
-----------------------------------------------------
1st Dhaka 7-8 December 1985
2nd Bangalore 16-17 November 1986
3rd Kathmandu 2-4 November 1987
4th Islamabad 29-31 December 1988
5th Malé 21-23 November 1990
6th Colombo 21 December 1991
7th Dhaka 10-11 April 1993
8th New Delhi 2-4 May 1995
9th Malé 12-14 May 1997
10th Colombo 29-31 July 1998
11th Kathmandu 4-6 January 2002
12th Islamabad 2-6 January 2004
13th Dhaka 12-13 November 2005
14th New Delhi 3-4 April 2007
15th Colombo 1-3 August 2008
16th Thimphu 28-29 April 2010

About ASEAN

2010-11-24T01:13:00.000-08:00

What is ASEAN?

What is Asean agreement?

What are the advantages and aisadvantages of Asean agreement?

What are the merits and demerits of Asean agreemet?

A lot of questions and doubts are there with the new Asean agreement between India and Asean. The main sad thing is that, most of the people in the country and especially in Kerala didn’t know what exactly it is and what are the different sides of this Asean agreement.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a group of ten Southeast Asian countries. It was formed on 8th august 1967. The 10 countries in ASEAN are Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Thailand.

This is the time of globalization to reduce expense. The members of ASEAN can have free trade between the member countries. It will give a huge amount of profit to the countries from taxation. The ASEAN agreement will help the economic, social and structural growth of its members. The gainful cooperation is the main advantage of ASEAN agreement. By signing the ASEAN agreement India can import the goods from very cheaply. It will help to bring down the costs of all the electronic goods imported from the member countries.

The ASEAN agreement in all the ways is good for India since India does not have to import food items and has only artificial products to import. Since India is self reliant of food items it does not have to import any of the food. So, it will not affect the agriculturists of India. And India can make a great profit from the free trade of electronic and automobile imports.

China’s trade share with the newer ASEAN members in terms of imports has given great advantages to the newer members. China and Vietnam are important trade partners both in terms of size and the rate of merchandise trade. The difference is a huge one as it is US$0.7 billion in 1995 to over US$2.9 billion in 2000. This makes clear how much of profit will a member get by signing into the ASEAN agreement.

The other advantage is for tourism as India and all the ASEAN nations can expect more of tourist from the member countries. India being one of the best tourist places can make a good profit from tourism. It will give a good income to those who live on tourism. There is a chance for direct investment from several ASEAN members.

The attractions of the ASEAN agreement for India are strengthening and enhancing economic, trade and investment co-operation between the Parties; progressively liberalizing and promoting trade in goods and services as well as creating a transparent, liberal and facilitative investment regime; exploring new areas and developing appropriate measures for closer economic co-operation between the Parties; and facilitating the more effective economic integration of the new ASEAN Member States and bridging the development gap among the Parties.

The agreement allows for the decline of tariffs on so-called highly sensitive items, and special products including palm oil, pepper, coffee and black tea by 2019. Tariff rates on sensitive items with the five ASEAN member states most significant to India’s trade system will be reduced gradually until the year 2016.

The tax rates on Normal Track 1 items will be reduced, and lastly eliminated, by 2013, and by 2016 for Normal Track 2 items. Other countries in ASEAN like Myanmar receive three to five years longer to realize the same tariff goals.

India had initially proposed to include 854 tariff lines in the sensitive catalog of items (not subjected to tariff reduction); the country has now reduced the number to 560. The remaining 294 items would carry on enjoying tariff protection for the first five years following which tariffs would be gradually reduced. The 560 items in the sensitive list include agricultural products, chemicals and petrochemicals, tobacco, alcohol and textile. The four agriculture items of primary interest to Asean countries including palm oil, pepper and tea, have, as promised, been kept out of the sensitive list.

For the betterment of India, she has contracted to reduce duties on the products after five years. India has agreed to reduce duties on crude palm oil to 50%, developed palm oil to 60% and pepper and tea to 50% over an epoch of 10 years. For the 290 remaining items which would be insulated from tax cuts for the first five years, tariffs would be slowly reduced to 7.5% by 2022.

The catalog includes chemicals & pesticides, rubber products, leather products, foot-wear, textile products, sewing machines and electrical parts. Tax elimination would be carried out on two tracks. The duty on items falling under normal track-1 will be eliminated by 2011 and duties on items falling under normal track-2 will be eliminated by 2015. The future of the India-Asean CECA now depends on how Asean reacts to India’s proposal.

In view of Malaysia, India’s informal offer made last month to reduce duties on palm oil was not sufficient. The Asean nations have submitted a sensitive list of 600 products to India. The India-Asean free trade agreement, which is supposed to be operational from January 1, 2007, had hit a roadblock when Asean had suspended the discussion expressing displeasure over India’s sensitive list including 854 products.

In short as every projects of the world the Asean treaty may also have a few demerits from some points of view. But there may be some better possibilities from the other sides which will add to the growth of the country.

List of Indian Official languages

2010-11-17T03:10:00.000-08:00

The official languages of the Republic of India are Standard Hindi and English. According to the article 343 (1), "The Official Language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script." The individual states can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. For example, the state of Andhra Pradesh has Telugu as its sole official language, the state of Tamil Nadu has Tamil as its sole official language and the state of Karnataka has Kannada as its sole official language, while the state of Jammu and Kashmir has Kashmiri, Urdu, and Dogri as its official languages.

Article 345 of the Indian constitution provides recognition to "official languages" of the union to include Standard Hindi or any one or more of the languages adopted by a state legislature as the official language. Until the Twenty-First Amendment of the Constitution in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawn on socio-linguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal administration and education.

The following table lists the official languages, aside from English, set out in the eighth schedule as of May 2008:

1
Language Assamese/Axomiya
Family Indo-Aryan, Eastern
State(s) Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

2
Language Bengali
Family Indo-Aryan, Eastern
State(s) West Bengal, Tripura, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and also few regions of Assam

3
Language Bodo
Family Tibeto-Burman
State(s) Assam

4
Language Dogri
Family Indo-Aryan, Northwestern
State(s) Jammu and Kashmir

5
Language Gujarati
Family Indo-Aryan, Western
State(s) Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Gujarat

6
Language Standard Hindi
Family Indo-Aryan, Central
State(s) Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Chandigarh, Chhattisgarh, the national capital territory of Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand

7
Language Kannada
Family Dravidian
State(s) Karnataka.

8
Language Kashmiri
Family Indo-Aryan, Dardic
State(s) Jammu and Kashmir

9
Language Konkani
Family Indo-Aryan, Southern
State(s) Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Kerala

10
Language Maithili
Family Indo-Aryan, Eastern
State(s) Bihar

11
Language Malayalam
Family Dravidian
State(s) Kerala, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Puducherry

12
Language Manipuri (also Meitei or Meithei)
Family Tibeto-Burman
State(s) Manipur

13
Language Marathi
Family Indo-Aryan, Southern
State(s) Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka

14
Language Nepali
Family Indo-Aryan, Northern
State(s) Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam

15
Language Oriya
Family Indo-Aryan, Eastern
State(s) Orissa

16
Language Punjabi
Family Indo-Aryan, Northwestern
State(s) Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab

17
Language Sanskrit
Family Indo-Aryan
State(s) non-regional

18
Language Santhali
Family Munda
State(s) Santhal tribals of the Chota Nagpur Plateau (comprising the states of Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa)

19
Language Sindhi
Family Indo-Aryan, Northwestern
State(s) non-regional

20
Language Tamil
Family Dravidian
State(s) Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Puducherry;

21
Language Telugu
Family Dravidian
State(s) Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Puducherry;

22
Language Urdu
Family Indo-Aryan, Central
State(s) Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh

List of Indian Postal Zones

2010-11-17T02:34:00.001-08:00

A Postal Index Number or PIN or Pincode is the post office numbering or post code system used by India Post, the Indian postal administration. PIN stands for Postal Index Number and the code is 6 digits long. The PIN was introduced on August 15, 1972.

There are nine PIN zones in India, including eight regional zones and one functional zone. The first digit of the PIN code indicates the region in which a given post office falls in. The second digit indicates the sub-region, and the third digit indicates the sorting district within the region. The final three digits are assigned to individual post offices.

The nine PIN zones cover the Indian states and union territories as follows:

1 - Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir(including Pakistan-administered Kashmir), Chandigarh

2 - Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand

3 - Rajasthan, Gujarat, Daman and Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli

4 - Goa, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh

5 - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

6 - Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry, Lakshadweep

7 - Orissa, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

8 - Bihar, Jharkhand

9 - Army Post office(APO) and Field Post office(FPO)

List of Indian Railway zones

2010-11-17T02:09:00.000-08:00

Sl. No --- 1
Name --- Central
Abbr. --- CR
Date Established --- 1951, November 5
Headquarters --- Mumbai
Divisions --- Mumbai, Bhusawal, Pune, Solapur, Nagpur

Sl. No --- 2
Name --- East Central
Abbr. --- ECR
Date Established --- 2002, October 1
Headquarters --- Hajipur
Divisions --- Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai, Samastipur, Sonpur

Sl. No --- 3
Name --- East Coast
Abbr. --- ECoR
Date Established --- 2003, April 1
Headquarters --- Bhubaneswar
Divisions --- Khurda Road, Sambalpur, Visakhapatnam

Sl. No --- 4
Name --- Eastern
Abbr. --- ER
Date Established --- 1952, April
Headquarters --- Kolkata
Divisions --- Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol, Malda

Sl. No --- 5
Name --- North Central
Abbr. --- NCR
Date Established --- 2003, April 1
Headquarters --- Allahabad
Divisions --- Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi

Sl. No --- 6
Name --- North Eastern
Abbr. --- NER
Date Established --- 1952
Headquarters --- Gorakhpur
Divisions --- Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi

Sl. No --- 7
Name --- North Western
Abbr. --- NWR
Date Established --- 2002, October 1
Headquarters --- Jaipur
Divisions --- Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur

Sl. No --- 8
Name --- Northeast Frontier
Abbr. --- NFR
Date Established --- 1958
Headquarters --- Guwahati
Divisions --- Alipurduar, Katihar, Rangia, Lumding, Tinsukia

Sl. No --- 9
Name --- Northern
Abbr. --- NR
Date Established --- 1952, April 14
Headquarters --- Delhi
Divisions --- Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow, Moradabad

Sl. No --- 10
Name --- South Central
Abbr. --- SCR
Date Established --- 1966, October 2
Headquarters --- Secunderabad
Divisions --- Secunderabad, Hyderabad, Guntakal, Guntur, Nanded, Vijayawada

Sl. No --- 11
Name --- South East Central
Abbr. --- SECR
Date Established --- 2003, April 1
Headquarters --- Bilaspur
Divisions --- Bilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur

Sl. No --- 12
Name --- South Eastern
Abbr. --- SER
Date Established --- 1955
Headquarters --- Kolkata
Divisions --- Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur, Ranchi

Sl. No --- 13
Name --- South Western
Abbr. --- SWR
Date Established --- 2003, April 1
Headquarters --- Hubli
Divisions --- Hubli, Bangalore, Mysore

Sl. No --- 14
Name --- Southern
Abbr. --- SR
Date Established --- 1951, April 14
Headquarters --- Chennai
Divisions --- Chennai, Madurai, Palakkad, Salem, Tiruchchirapalli, Trivandrum(Thiruvananthapuram)

Sl. No --- 15
Name --- West Central
Abbr. --- WCR
Date Established --- 2003, April 1
Headquarters --- Jabalpur
Divisions --- Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota

Sl. No --- 16
Name --- Western
Abbr. --- WR
Date Established --- 1951, November 5
Headquarters --- Mumbai
Divisions --- Mumbai Central, Ratlam, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Vadodara

List of most popular persons from Kerala

2010-11-15T23:16:00.000-08:00

Ancient rulers

(<>) Saamoothiri (Zamorin, സാമൂതിരി) - Rulers of Malabar from 14th and 18th century AD.

(<>) Ayilyam Thirunal - Ruler of Travancore from 1831 to 1880. Also known by his literary works.

(<>) Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma - Last King of Travancore; Rajpramukh of Thiru-Kochi.

(<>) Dharma Raja - Ruler of Travancore from 1733 to 1798. Known for his Principles of Justice.

(<>) Marthanda Varma - Ruled in the 18th century. Generally referred to as "the maker of modern Travancore".

(<>) Moolam Thirunal - Ruler of Travancore. Famous for his educational reforms.

(<>) Raja Kesavadas - Dewan of Travancore during the reign of Dharma Raja.

(<>) Sakthan Thampuran - Ruler of Kingdom of Cochin during 1751-1805.

(<>) Sir Sri Rama Varma - a.k.a Rajarshi, Ruler of Kingdom of Cochin and Father of Modern Cochin. (Abdicated highness)

(<>) Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma - Erstwhile king of Travancore and a great musician.

(<>) Rama Varma Kulashekhara - The last king of Chera empire and undivided Kerala in the 12th century and ruled for 36 years. Supposed to have converted to Islam according to a Muslim legend.

Independence Activists

(<>) Mohammed Abdurahiman Sahib - Freedom fighter and former KPCC President.

(<>) V.K. Krishna Menon - Toiled for India's Independence while he was in England. Diplomat, orator, and former Defence Minister of India.

(<>) Vakkom Majeed - Freedom fighter, former Member of Travancore-Cochin State Assembly.

(<>) Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair - President of the Indian National Congress (1897–1898).

(<>) T.M. Varghese - Leader of Abstebtion Movement. Founder member of the Travancore State Congress. Minister of Travancore-Cochin.

(<>) C. Kesavan

(<>) U. Gopala Menon - Indian National Congress leader.

(<>) Sir C. Madhavan Nair - Administrator during British Rule.

(<>) K. Kelappan - Known as "Kerala Gandhi". Leader of the Payyannur Salt Satyagraha and the Guruvayur Satyagraha. He was also the founding President of Nair Service Society.

(<>) K.P. Kesava Menon - Freedom fighter, Founder-Editor of the Mathrubhumi newspaper.

(<>) K.P. Kuttikrishnan Nair - Popularly known as Kuttiettan - he was the prominent leader of the Trade Union Movement in India. Former KPCC Vice President, AICC Secretary, Home Minister of Madras Presidency and Member of Parliament.

(<>) K. Gopalan - Independence activist from North Malabar region and founder leader of the Communist Party in India.

(<>) A.V. Kuttimalu Amma - Freedom fighter.

(<>) N.P. Nayar - Freedom fighter and former Administrator, Azad Hind Dal.

(<>) Ammu Swaminathan - Freedom fighter.

(<>) Lakshmi Sehgal - As Captain Lakshmi, commanded the Jhansi Rani Regiment of the INA under Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.

(<>) Velu Thampi Dalava - Fought the East India Company at a time they were grabbing power in princely states.

(<>) Pazhassi Raja - King of Kottayam Dynasty in North Malabar who fought the British half a century before the first war of independence fought by the rest of India.

(<>) Panampilli Govinda Menon - One of the early freedom fighters of the princely state of Cochin. Later, became a cabinet minister under Mrs. Indira Gandhi.

(<>) Ammu Swaminathan - Freedom fighter.

(<>) George James - Rebel leader

(<>) Nettur. P. Damodaran- Eminent freedom fighter, social worker, author and member of Parliament from Tellichery constituency,

Spiritual leaders

(<>) Varghese Palakkappillil Jagadguru Adi Sankara (788 - 820) - Saint, poet, philosopher and reviver of Hinduism in India. Propounded the doctrine of Advaita (non-duality), which identified the Supreme with the Self. He is revered as the Shankaracharya.

(<>) Chattampi Swamikal-Mystic Saint

(<>) Brahmasree Neelakanta Gurupadar (1898–1965)-Mystic Saint and recluse

(<>) Sree Narayana Gurudevan-One of the greatest saints and social reformers Kerala has seen. Was instrumental in uplifting the downtrodden masses of Kerala from social oppression and forced conversion by proselytizing religions.Founder of Sivagiri Mutt

(<>) Jagadguru Swami Sathyananda Saraswathi(1935–2006)-Disciple of Brahmasree Neelakanta Gurupadar and founder of Sree Rama Dasa Mission,Fouder Chairman of Hindu Aikya Vedi(Hindu Unity Forum with representation from every folds and schools of Hinduism reckoned by Hindus as the greatest karmayogi to uphold Sanatana Dharma since Swami Vivekananda.

(<>) Swami Tapovan Maharaj

(<>) Swami Abhedananda Bharati -Disciple of Chattampi Swamikal,Bhaktiyogi and founder of Abhedashramam Mahamanthralayam

(<>) Swami Ranganathananda

(<>) St. Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala - Canonized Spiritual Leader of Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church.

(<>) St. Athanasius Paulose - A Christian Saint from Kerala, who was the former Malankara Metropolitan and entombed at Thrikkunnathu Seminar, Aluva, Kerala, and canonized by Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas.

(<>) St. Coorilos Paulose - Former Malankara Metropolitan of Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church, canonized by Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas.

(<>) Archbishop Mar Ivanios

(<>) Archbishop Benedict Mar Gregorios

(<>) CatholicosBaselios Paulose II - Former Catholicos of the East of Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church in India and entombed at Malecuriz Dayaro in Ernakulam District, Kerala.

(<>) Sister Alphonsa - First female saint from India. On Sunday, 12 October 2008, Pope Benedict XVI announced her canonization at a ceremony at St Peter's Square.

(<>) H.H Baselios Marthoma Didymos I Catholicose of All the East and Malankara Metrolitan- Spiritual Leader of Malankara Orthodox Syrian Christians in Kerala.

(<>) Fr. Chavara Kuriakose - A Christian saint of Kerala. The yeoman service rendered by him led to the growth of the C.M.I. (Carmelites of Mary Immaculate) Congregation.

(<>) Fr.Varghese Palakkappillil (Payyappilly) - A Christian saint from Kerala. He was declared Servant of God on 6 September 2009. He founded the Congregation of the Sisters of the Destitute.

(<>) H.B Catholicos Dr. Baselios Thomas I, Catholicos of India - Spiritual Leader of Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church in India.

(<>) Amritanandamayi - Renowned spiritualist from Kerala whose charisma has won her followers from around the world.

(<>) Swami Chinamayananda - Founder, Chinmaya Mission

(<>) H.H Arch Bishop Philippose Mar Chrysostem - The Malankara Marthoma Metropolitan - Spiritual leader of Marthoma Syrian Christians in India and around the World.

Politicians

(<>) Dr K G Adiyodi the most sincere and spotlessly clean Finance and Forest Minister of Kerala State. He also decorated the office of KPCC Vice President.Former Chairmen. KPSC,Minister of Kerala for Food & Forest from 1971-77, Member - 4th & 5th Kerala Assembly, Member of Lok Sabha 1984, Member-AICC, President – KPCC, Chairman- Kerala Public Service Commission, President- Kerala Scouts and Guides

(<>) Mahathir bin Mohamad - Fourth and longest serving Prime Minister of Malaysia.

(<>) K.R. Narayanan (1921–2005) - Former President of India.

(<>) Dr. John Matthai Former Union Finance Minister

(<>) Devan Nair - Former President of Singapore.

(<>) V. K. Krishna Menon - First defence minister of India.

(<>) Joseph Mundassery (1903–77): Literary Critic and Social Reformer (First Education Minister of Kerala).

(<>) A.K. Antony - Current defence minister of India.Chief Minister of Kerala during 1977-78, 1995–96, and 2001-2004. Leader of the Opposition in Kerala

(<>) Shashi Tharoor - Former Minister of state for external affairs, and former UN undersecretary.

(<>) Vayalar Ravi - Union Cabinet Minister of Overseas Indian Affairs Govt of India.

(<>) Lakshmi N. Menon - First woman foreign minister of India (1957–1966).

(<>) E. Ahamed - Former Minister of state for External Affairs, Govt. of India, current minister of state for railways.

(<>) Mullappally Ramachandran - Minister of state for Home.

(<>) O. Rajagopal - First BJP leader from state to become a Union Minister. Minister of state for railways in Vajpayees ministry.

(<>) Achutha Menon-Former Kerala Chief Minister and noted Communist leader. Mr. Menon has a bright academic background. He was rank holder in Mathematics Bsc, as well as in LLB. He established the first public sector electronic corporate company, Keltron in India in 1974. Also, the world renowned Sri Chithira institute(Sri chithira heart valve is the product of this institute), Cochin university of science and technology, Kerala agriculture university etc. was Mr.Menons contributions. He established the first technopark of India in Thiruvananthapuram.

(<>) V.S. Achuthanandan - Current Chief Minister of Kerala. He was the secretary of CPI(M) state committee from 1980 to 1992 and Opposition leader of KLA from 1992 to 1996 and again from 2001 to 2006. Legislative Assembly during 1996 to 2001.

(<>) A.K. Gopalan (AKG) - Communist party leader. First opposition leader in Indian Parliament. Father of Indian Coffee Houses AKG. One of the most popular among all the Left leaders in India. He died on March 21, 1977 at the age of 73.

(<>) K.Damodaran- One of the founders of communist movement in Kerala.

(<>) C.H. Mohammed Koya - Former Chief Minister of Kerala.

(<>) K.C. Abraham - Former Governor of Andhra Pradesh, member of the first Kerala Legislative Assembly, and former Congress Working Committee Member.

(<>) Kesavan - The Chief Minister of erstwhile state of Travancore-Cochin from 1951-52.

(<>) Dr. P.C. Alexander - Former Governor of Tamil Nadu and Maharashra. Former High Commissioner to UK.

(<>) E.K. Nayanar - Former Chief Minister of Kerala. Noted Communist leader.

(<>) E.M.S. Namboodiripad - First Chief Minister of unified Kerala State. Headed the first elected communist government in the world. General Secretary of CPI(M) for many years.

(<>) Joseph Mundassery - A prominent literary critic of Malayalam language. Education Minister in the first communist ministry of Kerala.

(<>) K. Karunakaran - Former Kerala Chief Minister and Congress party leader.

(<>) P. Krishna Pillai - founder of communist movement in Kerala.

(<>) Mathai Manjooran (1912–1970) - A gallant freedom fighter, socialist revolutionary, member of the Indian Parliament, Labor Minister in the 2nd EMS communist ministry, and the staunchest advocate towards the formation of Kerala State.

(<>) M.A. Baby - Leading leftist, present Education Minister.

(<>) M.P. Veerendrakumar - Writer, noted politician.

(<>) Monce Joseph - The youngest minister in Kerala's present Left Democratic Front ministry.

(<>) Oommen Chandy - Present Opposition leader of Kerala and former Chief Minister of the state.

(<>) Paloli Mohammed Kutty - Minister for Local Govt.

(<>) P.K. Kunhalikkutty - Former State Industries Minister, Secretary of Kerala State Committee of IUML.

(<>) Pinarai Vijayan - CPI(M) Secretary, State Committee, Kerala and member of the Politburo.

(<>) Prakash Karat - General Secretary, CPI(M) National Committee.

(<>) P. J. Joseph - Kerala Congress (J) leader.

(<>) R. Sankar - Former Chief Minister of Kerala.

(<>) Sayeed Mohamedali Shihab Thangal - President of the Kerala state committee of the IUML.

(<>) Ramesh Chennithala - President, Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee. Former Lok Sabha MP.

(<>) V.P. Menon - The right-hand man of Sardar Patel in the unification of princely states during the formation of the Indian Union.

(<>) V.N. Janaki - Served as Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu for a short duration following the death of her husband, M.G. Ramachandran.

(<>) K. R. Gowri Amma - Founder of JSS. Was a leading leftist and the first revenue minister of Kerala.

(<>) K.M. Mani - Leader of Kerala Congress (M) and former Minister.

(<>) P.K. Vasudevan Nair - Former Chief Minister of Kerala. Noted CPI leader.

(<>) Dr. George Thomas, Former MLA and publisher

(<>) Nirupama Rao Indian foreign affairs, a malayalee.

Writers

(<>) Akkitham Achuthan Namboodiri - A famous Malayalam poet who is honored by the epithet 'Mahaakavi'. He won the Kendra Sahithya Academy Award for Malayalam in 1973. His famous poems include 'Irupatam Nuttantinte Ithihasam. Akkitham is associated with Tapasya _ a cultural organization.

(<>) Kandathil Varughese Mappillai Writer and poet

(<>) Anita Nair - Writer.

(<>) Arundhati Roy - Writer, awarded the Booker Prize in 1997 for 'The God of Small Things', which is set in Kerala.

(<>) Balachandran Chullikkadu - Poet admired for his realistic approach and hummable and rhythmic poems.

(<>) Balamani Amma - Poet; won the literary medal in India, the Saraswathi Samman.

(<>) Changampuzha Krishna Pillai (1911–1948) - Poet, author of the pastoral elegy 'Ramanan' (1936) which sold over 100,000 copies, a record that still stands. Changampuzha took Malayalam poetry to the zenith of romanticism.

(<>) Cherusseri Namboothiri - Mahakavi (great poet), part of the old Kavithrayam (triad of poets), with Ezhuthachan and Kunchan Nambiar. Author of 'Krishnagaadha (The Song of Krishna)'.

(<>) K.V.Dominic - Indian English poet, critic, editor and short story writer .

(<>) Vinayachandran - Poet.

(<>) Gayatri - Wrter, Painter, art and literary critic

(<>) Hameed Chennamangaloor - writer, progressive Muslim intellectual, critic of religious fundamentalism.

(<>) Kadammanitta Ramakrishnan- Noted Malayalam Poet.

(<>) Kamala Das - English poet and novalist, also wrote in Malayalam under the pen-name Madhavikkutty. First Indian woman to openly write about woman's sexuality. Embraced Islam under the name Kamala Suraiyya in 1999. Asian Poetry Prize, 1964, Kent Award, 1965.

(<>) Kesari Balakrishna Pillai - Social thinker, Literary critic who influenced a generation of writers and other intellectuals in Kerala during the first half of 20th Century. The name of one of his book "Navalokam" (New World) is symbolical representative of his intellectual contributions. Kesari read and wrote about various subjects. He gave advice and guidance most of the second generation Malayalam writers including, Thakazhi, Basheer, Pottekkadu. Kesari published a newspaper "Kesari" by which name he is known later. Kesari translated many literary works directly from French to show examples of world Literature to then Malayali writers.

(<>) Kumaran Asan - Mahaakavi (great poet), part of the new Kavithrayam, with Ulloor and Vallathol. Kumaran Asan was the follower of Srinarayana Guru. He used poetry to influence the society.

(<>) Kalakkaththu Kunchan Nambiar - Mahaakavi (great poet), part of the old Kavithrayam. Founder of the art form Ottan Thullal.

(<>) Kunjunni- Malayalam Poet

(<>) N.S. Madhavan - Writer and civil servant.

(<>) M. Krishnan Nair - Literary critic, whose column Sahithyavaraphalam has long served as a window to contem–porary world literature.

(<>) M. Mukundan - Novelist, author of 'Mayyazhippuzhayude Theerangalil (On the Banks of Mayyazhi)' and 'Deyvathinte Vikruthikal (Pranks of God)'.

(<>) George Menachery - Historian, Editor of The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed., The Indian Church History Classics (The Nazranies).

(<>) Moothiringode Bhavathrāthan Namboothiripad - Author of the famous Aphante Makal. He was social reformer especially of the Namboothiri society.

(<>) Moyinkutty Vaidyar - Great poet (Mahakavi), author of many authentic Mappila songs.

(<>) M. P. Parameswaran - Scientist turned social activist, involved with Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad.

(<>) M.G.Ramachandran - famously known as MGR chief Minister of Tamilnadu

(<>) M. T. Vasudevan Nair - Writer and cinema personality. Jnanpith Award, 1995.

(<>) Niranam Poets - Three Great Malayali poets Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar of the Kannassa family. They lived between AD 1350 and 1450 in the Niranam village of Tiruvalla

(<>) Nitya Chaitanya Yati - Scholar, monk.

(<>) O. Chandumenon - Author of the Malayalam novel 'Indulekha'. Also wrote the incomplete novel "Sharada".

(<>) O. V. Vijayan - Novelist, cartoonist. Author of 'Khasakkinte Ithihaasam (The Legends of Khasak)' and 'Dharmapuranam (The Saga of Dharmapuri).

(<>) O. N. V. Kurup

(<>) P. Parameswaran - Renowned thinker. Director of Bharatiya Vichara Kendram and former President of Vivekanand Kendra, Kanyakumari. Also known as Parameswarji.

(<>) P. K. Gopi- Poet.

(<>) Paul, M.P. - Literary critic.

(<>) Paul Zacharia - Writer.

(<>) Philipose Vaidyar - People group researcher and Writer.

(<>) Poomulli Neelakandan Namboothiripad - An expert in arts and literature, Ayurveda, Kalari, Yoga and other performing arts from the famous Poomulli family.

(<>) Poonthanam - Poet belonging to the Bhakti school.

(<>) Sara Joseph - Writer, Novelist, Sahitya Academy winner.

(<>) Shashi Tharoor - Novelist, Commonwealth Writers Prize, 1991; previous Under-Secretary-General (Communication and Public Information) of the United Nations, Deputy Minister of External affairs.

(<>) S. K. Pottekkatt (1913–1982) - A well-renowned author whose work 'Oru Desattinte Katha' (The Story of a Land) fetched him the Jnanpith award of 1980.

(<>) Sukumar Azhikode - Thinker, teacher, critic and orator.

(<>) Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai - Novelist and short story writer whose work Chemmeen was awarded Jnanpith Award in 1984.

(<>) Thirunalloor Karunakaran- Renowned poet, scholar, teacher and leftist intellectual

(<>) Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan - Architect of modern Malayalam. Mahakavi (great poet), part of the old Kavithrayam. Penned the most popular Malayalam renditions of Ramayana and Mahabharata.

(<>) Ulloor S Parameswara Iyer - Poet, part of the new Kavithrayam. Author of 'Umakeralam'.

(<>) G.S.UnnikrishnanNair-Science Writer,children's Writer,winner of national science communication award,Bhima Balasahithya Award and State Science Literature Award.Author of 'Ottakangal Paranja Katha'

(<>) Vaikom Muhammad Basheer - Writer, philosopher.

(<>) Vakkom Abdul Khader Moulavi - Publisher of the legendary publication Swadeshabhimani, social reformer, and a prominent leader of the progressive Islahi Movement in Kerala.

(<>) Vallathol Narayana Menon - Mahaakavi, part of the new Kavithrayam. Author of 'Sahithyamanjari'. Founder of Kerala Kalamandalam, the state's flagship institution for the promotion of performing arts.

(<>) Vayalar Ramavarma - Arguably the greatest lyricist in the history of Malayalam cinema.

(<>) Vayalar Sarath Chandra varma - noted young Malayalam film lyricist.

(<>) Vijayan, M. N - Thinker, writer, literary critic, social activist. Most of his works are compilation of speeches.

(<>) Vrindavanam Venugopalan - Writer, Journalist and Educationist,

(<>) Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon (1911–1985)- Famous Malayalam poet.

(<>) Yusuf Ali Kechery- Poet.

Business and Commerce

(<>) TPG Nambiar - Founder of electronics firm BPL

(<>) Capt.C. P. Krishnan Nair - Founder of the Leela Group of Hotels.

(<>) K.M. Mammen Mappilai - Founder of MRF Tyres & Manorama publications.

(<>) PNC Menon - Founder of Sobha developers.

(<>) Ravi Puravankara - Chief of real estate giant Puravankara Builders.

(<>) Ravi Pillai - Managing Director of Nasser S Al-Hajri Corporation & Gulf Asia, won Bharatyia Pravasi Samman Award in 2008, Honoured by Padmashree by Govt of India in 2010

(<>) Reji Abraham - Managing Director ABAN Group of Companies

(<>) Rajan Pillai - Singapore based industrialist who founded Britannia.

(<>) Thakiyudeen Abdul Wahid - Owner of East West Airlines

(<>) S Gopalakrishnan (Kris Gopalakrishnan) - Co Founder and current CEO of Infosys Technologies Ltd.

(<>) Shibulal SD - Founder and Director of Infosys Technologies Ltd.

(<>) Kochouseph Chittilappilly, Business man, V-Guard and highest tax payer of Kerala state.

(<>) Vineet Nayar-CEO and Wholetime Member of the Board of Directors of HCL Technologies.

(<>) M.A. Yusuf Ali - Founder of EMKE Group, Lulu Hypermarkets and Supermarkets

Journalists

(<>) Rohit Viswanath- CNN Young Journalist of the Year 2006. Editorial Page writer with The Times of India.

(<>) T. N. Gopakumar

(<>) Sunnykutty Abraham- COO and Chief News Editor of Jaihind TV and noted political analyst

(<>) Dr. Sebastian Paul- Media critic.

(<>) John Brittas- Managing Director of Kairali TV and People TV.

(<>) K. C. Mammen Mappillai- Founder of Malayala Manorama.

(<>) K. M. Mathew- Chief Editor of Malayala Manorama.

(<>) K. M. Roy- Noted Journalist.

(<>) V. K. Madhavan Kutty - Former Editor of the Malayalam daily, Mathrubhumi, and a founder director of satellite channel Asianet

(<>) O. Abdurahman-Editor-in-charge of Madhyamam

(<>) K. Raveendran Noted business journalist and Dubai-based columnist

Arts & Film

(<>) Mohanlal - Famous actor. Four time Winner of the National Award and Nine time state award winner & Ten time filmfare award winner for best actor category- The most by any keralite along with Mammootty.Mohanlal's movie Guru was chosen as India's official entry to the Oscar.He won IIFA award for winner of best Supporting Actor in the film "Company". He was chosen as the most popular Keralite by CNN-IBN.

(<>) MohanlalMammootty - Famous actor. Three time winner of the national award for Best Actor and Five time state award winner & nine time filmfare award winner for best actor category- The most by any keralite along with Mohanlal. He was chosen as the popular actor by asiavision.He was Male Sex Symbol of Kerala survey by vanitha 2004.

(<>) MammoottyAdoor Gopalakrishnan - Internationally acclaimed director. Movies include Elipathayam (The Mousetrap) and Mathilukal (Walls).

(<>) K. J. Yesudas - Classical musician and famous play back singer.

(<>) John Abraham - Bollywood actor and model

(<>) K. S. Chithra - Renowned playback singer and winner of several state and national awards.

(<>) Prem Naseer - Popular actor of Malayalam cinema.

(<>) M. T. Vasudevan Nair - Writer and cinema personality. Jnanpith Award, 1995.

(<>) Priyadarshan- Film Director.

(<>) Shaji N. Karun - Noted Film Director, whose movies include Piravi (Birth), Swam and Vaanaprastham.

(<>) Bharathan- Popular Film Maker.

(<>) Santosh Sivan - Famous Director and Cinematogrpher.

(<>) M. Night Shyamalan - Hollywood film director.

(<>) Resul Pookutty - Sound Engineer, first Oscar winning Indian.

(<>) Shobana - Actress and Bharatanatyam dancer. Two-time National award winner.

(<>) Lohithadas - Film Director / Writer.

(<>) G. Aravindan - Noted film director and cartoonist. Movies include Kanchana Seeta, Kummatty (Bogeyman) and Chidambaram. His cartoon strip series 'Valiya lokavum Cheriya manushyarum' was very popular.

(<>) P. Padmarajan (1945–1991)- popular film director, affectionately known a 'Pappan' whose films often blurred the line between artistic and commercial cinema.

(<>) Murali - Famous actor and winner of the national award for Best Actor in 2002 (Neythukaran).

(<>) Vayalar Ramavarma - Arguably the greatest lyricist in the history of Malayalam cinema.

(<>) Madhu - Actor

(<>) Rosshan Andrrews - Famous director.

(<>) Jayaraj - Famous director.

(<>) Suresh Gopi - Famous actor

(<>) Meera Jasmine - Popular South Indian Film Actress.

(<>) Monisha Unni - Famous Actress.

(<>) Manju Warrier - Malayalam Film Actress.

(<>) V. Dakshinamoorthy - Carnatic Music exponent and one of the greatest Malayalam Music Directors.

(<>) Hariharan - playback singer in Hindi, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu.

(<>) Jagathy Sreekumar - Famous Actor.

(<>) Manoj K Jayan - Actor.

(<>) Gireesh Puthenchery - Lyricist / Writer.

(<>) Jijo Punnose - Film Director - Navodaya Films - Maker of first 70 mm film in malayalam "padayottam"/ 3D film in India " My dear Kuttichathan" - National / State Award Winner

(<>) Appachan - Film Producer- Navodaya Films

(<>) P. Jayachandran: Ever Green Singer, in Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Hindi

(<>) Raveendran - Famous music director.

(<>) Renjith - Film Director / Writer.

(<>) Alex Paul - Music Director

(<>) K P Kumaran - Film Maker

(<>) G. Devarajan - Famous music director.

(<>) P.T.Kunju Muhammed - Film Director / Writer.

(<>) Remesh Narayan - Music director.

(<>) Bobby & Sanjay - Popular script writers.

(<>) Pattanam Rasheed - Makeup Artist.

(<>) Blessy - Popular Film Maker.

(<>) Madhu Muttam - Popular script writer.

(<>) Unni Menon - Renowned Playback singer and multiple Tamil State Award winner.

(<>) Fazil - Film Director / Writer.

(<>) Kozhikode Abdul Kader - Abdul Kader made his debut as a playback singer in Malayalam films in 1951 in the film 'Navalokam.' The 'Malabar Saigal' died on February 13, 1977.

(<>) Kavya Madhavan- Famous Malayalm Film Actress.

(<>) Priyamani- Popular South Indian Film Actress.

(<>) M. G. Sreekumar - Playback singer.

(<>) Nedumudi Venu - Famous actor.

(<>) Asin-Malayalam, Tamil and Bollywood actress

(<>) Srinivas - Play back Singer / Music Director - Kerala / Tamilnadu State Award Winner

(<>) Pradip Somasundaran- Playback singer who won "Lata Mangeshkar Trophy" in "Meri Awaz Suno" in 1996.

(<>) Sujatha Mohan- Famous playback singer.

(<>) Thilakan - Famous actor.

(<>) Shweta Menon--Popular South Indian Film Actress.

(<>) Shaji Kylas - Action film director

(<>) Kannur Rajan - Music composer

(<>) Thikkurussi Sukumaran Nair - Actor

(<>) Ouseppachan - Music director.

(<>) Navya Nair--Noted Actress

(<>) Sibi Malayil -- Malayalam Film Director.

(<>) Vayalar Sarath Chandra Varma -- lyricist in Malayalam cinema, son of Vayalar Rama Varma

(<>) Johnson - Music director.

(<>) M. G. Ramachandran - Famous Tamil Actor. Parents are Malayali.

(<>) Bharath Gopi - Famous Film, Drama Producer, Director and Actor.

(<>) Kaviyoor Ponnamma - Famous actress.

(<>) K. P. A. C. Lalitha - Famous actress.

(<>) Madhu Balakrishnan - Famous Play back singer

(<>) Sathyan Anthikkad - Malayalam Film Director.

(<>) Suresh Kumar - First Indian to win the 'Best Photography' Award in the San Francisco Short Film Festival in 2008.

(<>) Urvashi - Famous Actress.

(<>) Suresh Menon - Bollywood actor, comedian and TV personality.

(<>) Kaithapram Damodaran Namboothiri - Lyricist.

(<>) Vidya Balan- popular Bollywood actress born in Ottapalam.

(<>) Naveen Andrews - Actor. He is best known for playing Sayid Jarrah on the American television series Lost (TV series).

(<>) Shankar Mahadevan - Bollywood's one of the finest Music Directors and a noted singer.

(<>) KK-(Krishnakumar Kunnath)- Bollywood singer from Thrissur.

(<>) Kay-Kay-Menon-(Krishna Kumar Menon)- Bollywood Actor Originally from Kerala.

(<>) Sabu Cyril-famous art director

(<>) Jassie Gift- Music director & singer.

(<>) Sangeeth Sivan- popular director

(<>) Don Max - Film editor.

(<>) Ravi K. Chandran -famous film cinematographer

(<>) Arya- popular tamil actor

(<>) Nayantara -popular actress in tamil,telugu and tamil.

(<>) Sudha chandran- actress in malayalam and hindi fims more recently into hindi serials.

(<>) Kala Master -famous choreographer in tamil, malayalam films.

(<>) Peter Varghese - AUSTRALIAN ambassador to INDIA.

(<>) Priyaka Chopra- popular bollywood actress, mother is malayalee

(<>) Malaika Arora Khan-former VJ,actress; her mother is malayalee

(<>) Amrita Arora- sister of malaika, actress, former VJ

(<>) Gautam Menon -Tamil film director

(<>) Ravi Menon- Tamil director

Artists, painters, sculptors

Painters

(<>) Raja Ravi Varma - World renowned painter.

(<>) K. C. S. Paniker - Painter, founder of Cholamandal Artists' Village.

(<>) T. K. Padmini - Painter

(<>) Ramachandran - World renowned painter.

(<>) N. Karunakaran - Painter, Chairman of Kerala Lalitakala Academi

(<>) Akkitham Narayanan - Painter, settled in Paris

(<>) Balan Nair - Painter

(<>) V. S. Valiathan - Artist, Raja Ravivarma award winner.

(<>) Gayatri- Worldly known Painter, Art critic.Conducted many solo shows all over the country, won many national and international awards.

Sculptor

(<>) Kanayi Kunhiraman - Sculptor.

Cartoonists

(<>) Abu Abraham - Cartoonist, worked for The Guardian and The Observer.

(<>) Cartoonist Shankar (1902–1989) -Renowned Indian Political Cartoonist

(<>) K. S. Pillai (1919–1978) - Famous versatile political cartoonist (Deshabandhu, Malayala Manorama, Sarasan, Narmada)

(<>) O. V. Vijayan Cartoonist, writer.

(<>) Unni - Cartoonist,

(<>) P. K. Manthri- Artist, Cartoonist.

(<>) Gopikrishnan- Cartoonist.

(<>) Toms - The creator of the cartoon characters Boban and Molly.

(<>) Yesudasan - Famous Kerala Cartoonist. Staff Cartoonist Malayala Manorama

Others

(<>) R. Raja Raja Varma - Linguist and grammarian known as the Kerala Panini.

(<>) Sekar Ayyanthole - Painter, art teacher, former president of Kerala Chithrakala Parishath

(<>) M. V. Devan- Artist, Writer.

(<>) Yusuf Arakkal - Bangalore based painter.

(<>) Kavitha Balakrishnan - Kavitha balakrishnan is a contemporary artist and art historian from thrissur.

Social reformers

(<>) Adi Sankara (788 - 820) - Saint, poet, philosopher and reviver of Hinduism in India. Propounded the doctrine of Advaita (non-duality), which identified the Supreme with the Self. He is revered as the Shankaracharya.

(<>) Mitavadi C. Krishnan - Kerala's Leading Social Reformer - 1913-1938

(<>) Ayyankali- The leader of the backward casts in Kerala

(<>) Chattampi Swamikal (1853–1925) - was one of Kerala's famed social reform activists and learned men.

(<>) Kesavan - The Chief Minister of erstwhile state of Travancore-Cochin from 1951-52.

(<>) K. M. Moulavi - An active leader of the Khilafat movement and the first president of Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen (1950), which is responsible for fighting social evils like dowry, superstition, and promoting education and protecting rights of women among the Muslim population in Kerala.

(<>) K. P. Kesava Menon - Well known patriot and active volunteer of the freedom fight against the British. Founder of Mathrubhumi daily.

(<>) Mathai Manjooran (1912–1970) - A gallant freedom fighter, socialist revolutionary, member of the Indian Parliament, Labor Minister in the 2nd EMS communist ministry, and above all the staunchest advocate towards the formation of Kerala State.

(<>) Mannathu Padmanabhan - Founder of Nair Service Society.

(<>) M. C. Joseph - Rationalist, founding editor of Yukthivadi.

(<>) Nawab Rajendran - Social activist who stirred the conscience of the society for three decades.

(<>) Sree Narayana Guru (1856–1928) - Social reformer, scholar, teacher, saint and Vedantin. One of India's greatest sons

(<>) Sahodaran Ayyappan - Social reformer, follower of Sri Narayana Guru. He proclaimed "Jati Venda, Matham Venda, Daivam Venda Manusyanu" (No caste, No religion and No God for Human being" as a rejoinder to the famous words of his philosopher-guide Narayana Guru who said: "One Caste, One Religion and One God for Human Being".

(<>) Nataraja Guru - Disciple of Narayana Guru. He is a great sage and social reformer of India. Nataraja Guru founded Narayana Gurukulam.

(<>) Vakkom Abdul Khadir Moulavi (1877–1933) - A visionary social reformer and educationist, a prolific writer and fearless journalist, a noted scholar and linguist and, above all, a patriot.

(<>) Muttathil Sivarama Menon (1900–1983) A Visionary social reformer, teacher, writer, Social activist. Simplified the social studies school text books for 6th-11th grade for Kerala schools.

(<>) Shamsul Ulama E.K.Aboobacker Musliyar was leader of Samastha Kerala Sunni.

(<>) Sheikh Aboobacker Ahmad is Secretary-General of the Calicut-based Sunni Cultural Center (Markaz).

Sports

(<>) Rajiv Ouseph - English badminton player of Kerala origin, current England number 1 and World ranked 21

(<>) Anju George - The only Indian to win a medal at the World Athletics Championships.

(<>) T. C. Yohannan - Longjump gold in the 1974 Asian Games.

(<>) M. Vijayan - One of the leading Indian football players of modern times. Indian Player of the Year in 1992, 1997 and 1999.

(<>) Jimmy George - Legendary volleyball player.

(<>) Cyril Valloor - Legendary volleyball player and captain of the 1986 Indian team that won the bronze medal in Asian games.

(<>) Joby Joseph - Indian volleyball player.

(<>) Tom Joseph - Indian volleyball player.

(<>) P. T. Usha - One of India's greatest athletes, who missed out on a bronze medal by 0.01 seconds in the 400 m hurdles event in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics.

(<>) Tinu Yohannan - Former Indian cricket team player.

(<>) Sreesanth - Indian cricket player.

(<>) Sahil Pisharody - Youngest male certified scuba diver of India

(<>) Shiny Wilson - One of the best middle-distance runners India has ever seen.

(<>) Abey Kuruvilla - Indian cricket player.

(<>) V. Sivaraman - former National Champion, National Team Captain and National Coach of table tennis

(<>) M. D. Valsamma - 400m hurdles gold medal in the 1982 Asian Games.

Diplomats

(<>) Moorkoth Ramunni - First Fighter Pilot from Kerala. He gained IPS after retiring from Air Force.

(<>) Shivshankar Menon- Foreign Secretary.nephew to KPS Menon Jr. and grandson to KPS Menon Sr.Credited with ending India's nuclear isolation by playing a pivotal role in the negotiations with the US, the NSG and the IAEA

(<>) Shashi Tharoor- Former united nations under secretary and former deputy minister of external affairs of India. Mr.Tharoor was the highest ranking Indian official in the U.N.

(<>) Gen. Satish Nambiar- Former united nations security general.

(<>) Nirupama Rao- Foreign Secretary and successor of Shivshankar Menon, hail from Malappuram District, Kerala. Married to Sudhakar rao present chief secretary of Karnataka.

(<>) M.K. Narayanan- National Security chief and former chief of IB (Intelligence Bureau).

(<>) K. P. S. Menon - Diplomat who served as Indian Ambassador to China and USSR. He was the head of India's mission in Moscow when Jawaharlal Nehru visited Soviet Union in early fifties, opening a long chapter of friendship between the two countries.

(<>) John Mathai - Economist who served as India's first Railway Minister and subsequently as India's Finance Minister, taking office shortly after the presentation of India's first Budget, in 1948.

(<>) P.C. Alexander - Former governor of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu and a former Indian civil servant. He served as governor of Tamil Nadu from 1988 to 1990, and governor of Maharashtra from 1993 to 2002. Served as Indira Gandhi's private Secretary.Author of The Corridors of Power

(<>) N. R. Pillai - Secretary-General, Ministry of External Affairs, in Jawarhalal Nehru's cabinet.

(<>) Kavalam Madhava Panikkar - Was Home Secretary when Sardar Patel was the Home Minister. Had a successful career as Ambassador to different countries, including China. Authored many books.

(<>) T.N.Seshan - Former CEC.Credited with ensuring fair and free elections and bringing credibility to the Election Commission

(<>) K P S Menon Jr. - Foreign Secretary.His father, KPS Menon was independent India's first Foreign Secy.

(<>) Sreedharan - MD Delhi Metro Corp, Former CMD Konkan Railways

(<>) M. S. Swaminathan - Scientist: Father of the Green Revolution in India

(<>) Dr Verghese Kurien - Former Chairman Amul: Father of the White Revolution in India

(<>) P.V.Sathyan famous foot baller

Co-operators

(<>) Advocate T. K. Krishnan- Cofounder of Indian Coffee Houses in Kerala. Founder President of ICH Societeies in Thrissur and Palakkad. Communist Leader, prominent advocate and Former M.L.A.

(<>) Nadakkal Parameswaran Pillai or Coffee House Pillai- Cofounder of Indian Coffee Houses in Kerala. Founder Secretary of ICH Societeies in Thrissur and Palakkad. Chairman of the All India Federation of Coffee Board Workers Co-operative Societies. Author of Coffee Housinte Katha, the history of ICH Movement.

Jurists

(<>) V.R. Krishna Iyer - Former Judge Supreme Court of India, politician, and social worker.

(<>) K.K. Mathew - Former Judge of the Supreme Court of India, Tenth Law Commission Chairman, and later Chairman of the Second Press Commission.

(<>) K. G. Balakrishnan - 37th Chief Justice of India. The only Malayali to head the Supreme Court of India and the first Dalit to do so

Performing Artists

(<>) Guru Gopinath (1908–1987) - World renownd Indian Classical Dancer, Master and Author

(<>) Padma Shri Mani Madhava Chakyar (1989–1991) -World renowned Koodiyattam and Chakyar Koothu artist, Natya Shastra scholar and authority of Acting.

(<>) Gopinath Muthukad - Noted magician.

(<>) Kalamandalam Hyderali - Kathakali singer.

(<>) Kalamandalam Gopi- Renowned Kathakali Artist.

(<>) Keeleri Kunhikkannan, the great circus acharya of Kerala established the first circus institute in Kerala (1901).

(<>) Kottakkal Sivaraman- Renowned Kathakali Artist.

(<>) Mrinalini Sarabhai - Famous danseuse. She is the wife of late Indian physicist, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, mother of Mallika Sarabhai, and sister of Captain Lakshmi.

(<>) Athira -Internationally Acclaimed Violin Prodigy /Guinness World Record Holder.

(<>) Kim Thayil famous guitarist of 90's vanguard grunge band Soundgarden.

Scientists and Technocrats

Ancient Period

(<>) Jyeshtadeva - Mathematician; author of Yuktibhasa, a treatise on Calculus.

(<>) Madhava of Sangamagrama - A 14th century mathematician.

Modern Day

(<>) Sreedharan - Indian technocrat, M.D. of Delhi Metro, Chairman of Konkan Railway Project.

(<>) Balakrish Nair - Indian microbiologist. Presently, Director of National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases (NICED, ICMR), Kolkata, India.

(<>) George Sudarsan - Renowned theoretical physicist; Emeritus professor at University of Texas. Nominated for the Nobel prize a number of times. First to propose the V-A Theory with Robert Marshak in the 1950s. Two American scientists later won nobel price based on the theories formed by Sudarshan.

(<>) George Varghese - Professor of Computer Science at the University of California San Diego

(<>) Madhavan Nair - Former chairman of ISRO.

(<>) G. N. Ramachandran - Indian Biophysicist, known for Ramachandran plot.

(<>) Jai Menon - IBM scientist in the field of data storage

(<>) K. C. Sreedharan Pillai - Indian mathematician.

(<>) K. Mani Chandy - Simon Ramo Chair Professor and Professor of Computer Science, California Institute of Technology. Member of the United States National Academy of Engineering.

(<>) K. Radhakrishnan - Chairman of ISRO.

(<>) K.T.Jacob - Plant-Geneticist, Took over the work of Sir. Jagadish Chandra Bose.

(<>) Laurie Baker - Eco-friendly architect and engineer.

(<>) Manoj M. Prabhakaran - Computer Scientist working in the field of Cryptography at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

(<>) Mathai Varghese - Professor of Mathematics at University of Adelaide.

(<>) M. G. K. Menon - Mambalikalathyl Govindan Kumar Menon, physicis who worked in the field of Cosmic Rays and as Director of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. Later became Union Minister for Science and Technology.

(<>) M. S. Swaminathan - Famous Agriculture Scientist known as the father of Green Revolution

(<>) P. K. Venugopalan Nambiar - Indian agricultural scientist credited with the development of the first hybrid variety of black pepper in the world.

(<>) P. N. Vinayachandran - Associate Professor of Oceanography at the Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. He was the recipient of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in 2008.

(<>) Pulickel Ajayan - Benjamin M. and Mary Greenwood Anderson Professor in Engineering at Rice University

(<>) Rajesh Gopakumar - String theorist at Harish-Chandra Research Institute, Allahabad. He was the recipient of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in 2009 and the ICTP Prize in 2006.

(<>) Remi Chandran - UN researcher renown for his work on Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System Project.

(<>) Sarada G. Rajeev - Professor of Physics, University of Rochester.

(<>) S. Venkateswaran, Professor Emeritus of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science at UCLA

(<>) Thanu Padmanabhan - Distinguished Professor at the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics

(<>) Thekkethil Kochandy Alex - Director ISRO Satellite Centre , Major contributions to Chandrayaan-1 mission.

(<>) Thomas Kailath - Hitachi America Professor of Engineering, Emeritus, at Stanford University.

(<>) Thomas Zacharia - Computer Scientist and Deputy Laboratory Director at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

(<>) Vasundara Varadan - Billingsley Chair and Distinguished Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Arkansas.

(<>) V.Parameswaran Nair - Professor of Physics, City College of the CUNY.

Medicine

(<>) Dr Thomas Thomas - The first Indian Cardio-Thoracic surgeon.

(<>) M. Krishnan Nair - Leading oncologist

(<>) Mani Menon, Eminent Surgeon [Detroit, U.S.A.]

(<>) M. S. Valiathan, Cardiac surgeon, Former Vice Chancellor, Manipal University.

(<>) R. Kesavan Nair - Renowned surgeon

(<>) John A. Kalapurakal - Associate professor, Radiation Oncology and Neurosurgery, Northwestern University.

(<>) K.S.Nair - Professor of Medicine, Mayo Clinic.

Law enforcement

(<>) Sandhya- Police Officer.

(<>) R.B. Sreekumar-Former Director General of Police (DGP), Gujarat.

(<>) Letika Saran-DGP,T.N.

Academic persons

(<>) Sardar K.M. Panikkar - Eminent historian. India's first ambassador to China.

(<>) K. N. Raj - Economist who played a key role in India's first Five Year Plan, one of the founding fathers of the Delhi School of Economics.

(<>) K. R. Narayanan President of India and Vice-Chancellor of Jawaharlal Nehru University

(<>) Father V.C. Samuel World renowned theologian, historian, author and multilinguist. First Keralite of highest academic pursuit (B.A. ph, M.A. ph, B.D. th, S.T.M. th, PhD - Yale University, Post Doctoral Research Scholar - University of Chicago, Rockefeller Fellow). First Keralite became principal of a foreign university (Haili Salasi U. Addis Ababa)

Activists

(<>) K. Janu - leader of the Adivasi Gothra Maha Sabha, a social movement that has been pushing for land to be redistributed to landless adivasis and that grew out of the Dalit-Adivasi Action Council.

Aung San Suu Kyi

2010-11-15T22:34:00.000-08:00

Current Situation

Aung San Suu Kyi, Burma’s pro-democracy leader and Nobel Peace laureate, has come to symbolise the struggle of Burma’s people to be free.

She has spent more than 15 years in detention, most of it under house arrest. She was released from her current third period of detention on Saturday 13th November 2010.

However, there are still more than 2,200 political prisoners in Burma and none of the repressive laws allowing the dictatorship to detain people without trial and restrict other freedoms have been repealed following the sham election on 7 November or under the new constitution.

Early Life

Aung San Suu Kyi was born on June 19th, 1945, daughter of Burma’s independence hero, Aung San, who was assassinated when she was only two years old.

Aung San Suu Kyi was educated in Burma, India, and the United Kingdom. While studying at Oxford University, she met Michael Aris, a Tibet scholar who she married in 1972. They had two sons, Alexander and Kim.

Return to Burma

Aung San Suu Kyi returned to Burma in 1988 to nurse her dying mother, and soon became engaged in the country’s nationwide democracy uprising. The military regime responded to the uprising with brute force, killing up to 5,000 demonstrators on 8th August 1988.

Following a military coup on 18th September 1988, on 24th September 1988 a new pro-democracy party, the National League for Democracy, was formed. Aung San Suu Kyi was appointed General Secretary. Aung San Suu Kyi gave numerous speeches calling for freedom and democracy, and political activities continued across the country.

1990 Elections

Facing increasing domestic and international pressure, the dictatorship was forced to call a general election, held in 1990.

As Aung San Suu Kyi began to campaign for the NLD, she and many others were detained by the regime. Aung San Suu Kyi was banned from personally standing in the election. Despite conditions around the elections being far from free and fair with Aung San Suu Kyi and other democracy activists being detained, biased media, and intimidation of politicians, the voting on the day was relatively free and fair. The NLD won a staggering 82% of the seats in Parliament. The dictatorship never recognised the results of the election, and refused to hand over power.

Released For Five Years

Aung San Suu Kyi was held under house arrest until July 1995. When released she faced restrictions on travel.

On March 27 1999, Aung San Suu Kyi’s husband, Michael Aris, died of cancer in London. He had petitioned the Burmese authorities to allow him to visit Aung San Suu Kyi one last time, but they had rejected his request. He had not seen her since a Christmas visit in 1995. The government always urged Aung San Suu Kyi to join her family abroad, but she knew that she would not be allowed to return to Burma.

Detained Again

In 2000 Aung San Suu Kyi was again placed under house arrest after repeated attempts to leave the capital, Rangoon, to hold political meetings in other parts of the country.

Released Again

In 2002, Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest and with freedom to travel around the country. The release was part of a deal negotiated by UN Envoy on Burma, Razali Ismail. He had facilitated secret meetings between Aung San Suu Kyi and the military. Confidence building steps had been agreed, including that the dictatorship would stop the vehement attacks on Aung San Suu Kyi in the media, and the NLD would stop publicly calling for sanctions, although its policy of still supporting targeted economic sanctions remained. However, when it came to move from confidence building meetings, and instead start dealing with matters of substance, the dictatorship refused to engage in any meaningful dialogue. As a low-level envoy without significant political backing from the UN itself or the international community, Razali was unable to persuade the Generals to move the dialogue forward.

After waiting patiently, Aung San Suu Kyi began to travel the country, holding meetings at which tens of thousands of people turned out to see her, dashing the hopes of the Generals that during her long period of detention the people would have forgotten her, and her support would have waned.

The dictatorship began using members of the Union Solidarity and Development Association to harass and attack NLD meetings. This political militia was set up and organised by the military, with Than Shwe, dictator of Burma, as its President. It later transformed as the Union Solidarity and Development Party, the political party front for the military in the elections held on 7th November 2010.

On May 30th 2003 members of the USDA attacked a convoy of vehicles Aung San Suu Kyi was travelling in. It was an attempt by the dictatorship to assassinate Aung San Suu Kyi, using a civilian front so as not to take the blame. Aung San Suu Kyi’s driver managed to drive her to safety, but more than 70 of Aung San Suu Kyi’s supporters were beaten to death. The attack became known at the Depayin Massacre. The dictatorship claimed it was a riot between two political groups, incited by the NLD. The United Nations General Assembly called for the incident to be investigated, but it never was.

Detained Again

Following the attack, Aung San Suu Kyi was held in detention, and then placed back under house arrest. She has been detained ever since.

During her current period of detention, conditions have been much stricter than in the past. Her phone line has been cut, her post is stopped and National League for Democracy volunteers providing security at her compound were removed in December 2004.

Diplomats are generally not allowed to meet her, although occasionally UN envoys and US government officials have been allowed to meet her. However, even UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon was not allowed to meet her when he visited the country in 2009.

In May 2009, just days before her period of house arrest was due to expire, Aung San Suu Kyi was arrested and charged with breaking the terms of her house arrest, which forbids visitors, after John Yettaw, a United States citizen, swam across Inya lake and refused to leave her house. In August 2009 she was convicted, and sentenced to three years imprisonment. In an apparent attempt to placate international outrage about the trial, the sentence was reduced to 18 months under house arrest. By coincidence, this meant her release date turned out to be just 6 days after elections held in Burma, thereby ensuring that once again she was in detention during elections.

International Support

Aung San Suu Kyi has won numerous international awards, including the Nobel Peace Prize, the Sakharov Prize from the European Parliament and the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom. She has called on people around the world to join the struggle for freedom in Burma, saying “Please use your liberty to promote ours.”

Chronology

1945:
Born in Rangoon on June 19th, the daughter of independence hero and national leader General Aung San and Daw Khin Kyi; General Aung San is assassinated July 19, 1947. Aung San Suu Kyi is educated in Rangoon until 15 years old.

1960:
Accompanies mother to Delhi on her appointment as Burmese ambassador to India and Nepal and studies politics at Delhi University.

1964-67:
BA in philosophy, politics and economics, St. Hugh’s College, Oxford University. She is elected Honorary Fellow in 1990.

1969-71:
Assistant Secretary, Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions, United Nations Secretariat, New York.

1972:
Research Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Bhutan; married Dr. Michael Aris, a British scholar.

1973-77:
Birth of sons Alexander in London (1973) and Kim (1977) in Oxford.

1985-86:
Visiting Scholar, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.

1987:
Fellow, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Simla.

1988 March:
Student protests break out in Rangoon.

1988 Jul 23:
General Ne Win steps down as Chairman of the Burma Socialist Programme Party(BSPP) after 26 years, triggering prodemocracy movement.

1988 Aug 8:
The famous 8-8-88 mass uprising starts in Rangoon and spreads to the entire country, drawing millions of people to protest against the BSPP government. The following military crackdown killed thousands.

1988 Aug 26:
Aung San Suu Kyi addresses half-million mass rally in front of the famous Shwedagon Pagoda in Rangoon and calls for a democratic government.

1988 Sep 18:
The military reestablishes its power and the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) is formed. The military again crushes the pro-democracy movement, killing hundreds more.

1988 Sep 24:
The National League for Democracy (NLD) is formed, with Aung San Suu Kyi as general secretary.

1988 Dec 27:
Daw Khin Kyi, mother of Aung San Suu Kyi, dies. The funeral procession draws a huge crowd of supporters, which turns into a peaceful protest against military rule.

1989 Jul 20:
Aung San Suu Kyi is placed under house arrest in Rangoon under martial law that allows for detention without charge or trial for three years.

1990 May 27:
Despite her continuing detention, the National League for Democracy wins a landslide victory in the general elections by securing 82 percent of the seats; the military junta refuses to recognise the results of the election.

1990 Oct 12:
Awarded, in absentia, the 1990 Rafto Human Rights Prize.

1991 Jul 10:
Awarded, in absentia, the 1990 Sakharov Prize (human rights prize of the European Parliament).

1991 Aug 10:
The military regime retroactively amends the law under which Aung San Suu Kyi is held to allow for detention for up to five years without charge or trial.

1991 Oct 14:
Awarded the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.

1991 Dec 10:
Aung San Suu Kyi’s ‘Freedom from Fear’ and other writings published in London.

1992:
The Nobel Committee reveals that Aung San Suu Kyi has established a health and education trust in support of the Burmese people to use the $1.3 million prize money.

1994 Sep 20:
Gen. Than Shwe and Gen. Khin Nyunt of SLORC meet Aung San Suu Kyi for the first time since the house arrest.

1995 Jul 10:
The junta releases Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest.

1995 Oct 10:
The NLD defied junta’s ban on changes in party leadership positions and reappointed her as the party’s General Secretary.

1999 Mar 27:
Aung San Suu Kyi’s husband Michael Aris dies of prostate cancer in London. His last request to visit Aung San Suu Kyi, whom he had last seen in 1995, was rejected by the military junta which said if Aung San Suu Kyi wanted to leave the country she could do so. She refused the offer knowing that she would not be allowed to return to Burma.

1996-2000:
Aung San Suu Kyi defies travel bans imposed against her and continually tries to leave Rangoon. In March 1996, she boarded the train bound for Mandalay but citing a “last minute problem” the coach she was in was left behind at the station.

2000 Sep 02:
Around 200 riot police surrounded Daw Aung San Suu Kyi’s motorcade near Dala and forced them to return to Rangoon after a nine-day standoff.

2000 Sep 23:
Aung San Suu Kyi is placed under house arrest.

2000 Oct:
Aung San Suu Kyi begins secret talks with the military junta. Substance of the talks remains secret, and UN Special Envoy Razali acts as a “facilitator.”

2000 Dec 07:
US President Bill Clinton confers America’s highest civilian honour on Aung San Suu Kyi. Her son Alexander Aris receives the award on her behalf.

2002 May 6:
Aung San Suu Kyi is freed after 19 months of house arrest.

2003 May 30:
During a tour of northern Burma, Aung San Suu Kyi and her supporters are attacked by the Union Solidarity Development Association (USDA), the regime’s militia, in the town of Depayin. As many as 70 people were killed in the attack and over 100 people arrested, including Aung San Suu Kyi. Aung San Suu Kyi remained in secret detention for over three months.

2004 March:
Razali Ismail, UN special envoy to Burma, has his last meeting Aung San Suu Kyi.

2006 May 20:
Ibrahim Gambari, UN Undersecretary-General for Political Affairs, met Aung San Suu Kyi, the first visit by a foreign official since Razali’s visit in 2004. Gambari met Aung San Suu Kyi again in November 2006 but his visit failed to secure any concessions from Burma’s military regime.

2007 May 25:
Aung San Suu Kyi’s term of house arrest was extended for another year.

2007 Sep 22:
Aung San Suu Kyi left her house to greet and pray with Buddhist monks outside her gate during the biggest demonstrations in Burma since the 1988 uprising. This is the first time she has been seen in public since 2003.

2007 Sep 30:
The UN special envoy Ibrahim Gambari meets Aung San Suu Kyi in Rangoon.

2007 Oct 24:
Aung San Suu Kyi reaches a total of 12 years in detention.

2007 Oct 25:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets the regime’s newly appointed liaison officer, Aung Kyi, but no details of their discussion are made public.

2007 Nov 6:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets UN special envoy Ibrahim Gambari. Text of Aung San Suu Kyi’s statement released by U.N. envoy 08 November 2007

2008 Jan 31:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets NLD leadership. She asked that they convey to the public the message that “We should hope for the best and prepare for the worst.”

“What I can say is Daw Suu is not satisfied with the current meetings with the junta, especially the fact that the process is not time-bound,” NLD spokesperson Nyan Win said, referring to the lack of a time frame for the talks to achieve any results.

2008 Mar 8:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets UN special envoy Ibrahim Gambari.

2009 Feb 20:
Gambari meets jointly with Aung San Suu Kyi and members of the National League for Democracy.

2009 Mar 24:
The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention issues a judgment declaring that the ongoing detention of Aung San Suu Kyi is illegal and in violation of both Burmese and international law.

2009 May 14:
Aung San Suu Kyi is arrested and charged with breaking the terms of her house arrest, which forbids visitors, after John Yettaw, a United States citizen, swam across Inya lake and refused to leave her house.

2009 May 18:
Aung San Suu Kyi’s trial begins, held in closed-door hearings inside Insein prison. Aung San Suu Kyi’s two companions and John Yettaw are also on trial.
2009 Jun 26:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets UN special envoy Ibrahim Gambari.

2009 Jul 03:
UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon visits Burma but is not allowed to meet Aung San Suu Kyi.

2009 Aug 11:
Aung San Suu Kyi is found guilty and sentenced to 18 months under house arrest.

2009 Oct 03:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets SPDC Liaison Minister Major General Aung Kyi.

2009 Oct 09:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets the UK Ambassador and the deputy heads of the Australian and US missions in Burma.

2009 Oct 24:
Aung San Suu Kyi reaches a total of 14 years in detention, most of it under house arrest.

2009 Nov 04:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets a US delegation led by Assistant Secretary of State Kurt Campbell.

2009 Dec 09:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets SPDC Liaison Minister Major General Aung Kyi.

2009 Dec 16:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets NLD party leaders Aung Shwe, U Lwin and Lun Tin.

2010 Jan 15:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets SPDC Liaison Minister Major General Aung Kyi.

2010 Feb 01:
The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention issues a judgment declaring that the ongoing detention of Aung San Suu Kyi is illegal and in violation of both Burmese and international law.

2010 Mar 08:
The country’s state-run newspapers publish the election laws, which ban Aung San Suu Kyi from taking part in the fake election. Click here for more information.

2010 May 06:
National League for Democracy Party in Burma is banned.

2010 May 10:
Aung San Suu Kyi meets a US delegation led by Assistant Secretary of State Kurt Campbell.

2010 Oct 24:
Aung San Suu Kyi reaches a total of 15 years in detention, most of it under house arrest.

2010 Nov 13:
Aung San Suu Kyi is released from detention.

Arakkal Kingdom – One and only Muslim Kingdom in Kerala

2010-11-13T23:39:00.000-08:00

Muslims of Kerala believe their origins can be traced back to the 7th century CE when the religion originated in Arabia. The history of Muslims in Kerala is closely intertwined with the history of Muslims in the nearby Lakshadweep islands. Kerala's only Muslim kingdom was Kannur's Arakkal family. Historians however, disagree about the time period of Arakkal rulers. They see the Arakkal kings come to power in the 16th or 17th century.

The Ali Raja was the title of the Muslim king (raja) of Kannur in modern India during the 17th Century. The king's palace, which he purchased from the Dutch in 1663, was named Arakkal Palace after the ruling dynasty.

By 1909, Arakkal rulers had lost Kannur and the Cannanore Cantonment. By 1911, there was a further decline with the loss of chenkol and udaval (sword). They allied and clashed with the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the British. The British played the biggest part in removing all vestiges of titles and power from the Arakkal rulers. One of the last kings, Arakkal Abdu Rahiman Ali Raja (1881–1946), was active in helping his subjects. The last ruler was Ali Raja Mariumma Beevi Thangal. After her rule, the family broke up.

During the time of the Samuthiries the Muslims of Malabar played a major role in the local army and navy, as well as acting as ambassadors to Arabia and China. They forged alliances with the Moslil rulers of Gujarat and Bijapur. Muslims from Pandi Desham migrated to trade with Erattupetta, Kanjirappalli, Mundakayam, Peruvanthanam and Vandiperiyar in the Kottayam district of Kerala. In the 17th century, trade links were established with places like Kayamkulam and Aleppy in the west. It was during the time of Samuthiris that the title of Marakkar was created. Muslim influence reached its peak at the time of Kunjali Marakkar, the fourth in the line. After Kunjali Marakkar and Samuthiri parted company, Muslim influence declined.

During the Dutch period, a prominent Muslim trader named Moosakoi spearheaded the development of trade centers in Chenganacherri, Pandalam, Kayamkulam and Alappuza.

During the time of Hyderali and Tippu Sultan there was a revival amongst the Muslims of Malabar. The Arakkal king signed a treaty with Hyderali. Samathuri followed up with his own treaty with Hyder.

Origins

There is a consensus among scholars that the Arakkal family had Nair origins.

In the 17th century, one of the Padanairs (generals) of Kolathiri, Arayankulangara Nair, converted to Islam. His wife was the daughter of Kolathiri, and they later came to be known as Arakkal. Around this time, many Muslim merchant families became financially influential in the Malabar region. When the Arakkal family took control of Lakshadweep, they achieved near-royal status.

There is a legend that, centuries ago, Kolathu Nadu (presently Kannur district) was ruled by Chirakkal Raja. His daughter began to drown while bathing in the Chirakkal kulam (pond). Her friends cried and shouted but were unable to rescue her. A passing Muslim boy heard the shouting and came to find out what was wrong. He recognized the girl drowning in the pond as the princess, but was hesitant about saving her because untouchability and if a lower-caste person touched an upper-caste person it was considered a sin, possibly punishable by death. However, the boy rescued her and gave her his mundu to cover herself. When the news reached the Chirakkal Raja, he called his daughter and the Muslim boy to him.

At that time, if a man gave a "pudava" (a long cloth used for covering the body) to an unmarried woman, they were considered married. The scholars of the court told the Raja that since his daughter was touched by a Muslim, she was no longer allowed to enter the palace. However, the boy had given her his pudava so she was married to him as well. As per the custom the king had no other choice but to give his daughter to the Muslim boy. The Raja was unhappy to give his daughter to a poor family, so he made the boy ruler of part of the country.

The area given to the boy was known as Arakkal and his family was called the Arakkal family. The ruler's daughter was known as Arakkal Beevi.

Ali Rajas and Arakkal Beevis

Former ruler Sultana Aysha Aliraja.The Arakkal family followed a matriarchal system of descent: the eldest member of the family, whether male or female, became its head and ruler. While male rulers were called Ali Rajah, female rulers were known as Arakkal Beevis.

Sultana Aysha Aliraja was the ruler until her death on the morning of September 27, 2006

Arakkal dynasty

Reigning rajas

Ali Raja Ali (1545–1591)
Ali Raja Abubakar I (1591–1607)
Ali Raja Abubakar II (1607–1610)
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali I (1610–1647)
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali II (1647–1655)
Ali Raja Kamal (1655–1656)
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali III (1656–1691)
Ali Raja Ali II (1691–1704)
Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa I (1704–1720)
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali IV (1720–1728)
Ali Raja Bibi Harrabichi Kadavube (1728–1732)
Ali Raja Bibi Junumabe I (1732–1745)
Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II (1745–1777)
Ali Raja Bibi Junumabe II (1777–1819)

Heads of the Arakkal dynasty since 1819

Ali Raja Bibi Mariambe (1819–1838)
Ali Raja Bibi Hayashabe (1838–1852)
Ali Raja Abdul Rahman I (1852–1870)
Ali Raja Musa Ali (1870–1899)
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali V (1899–1907)
Ali Raja Bibi Imbichi (1907–1911)
Ali Raja Ahmad Ali (1911–1921)
Ali Raja Bibi Ayesha (1921–1931)
Ali Raja Abdul Rahman II (1931–1946)
Ali Raja Bibi Arakkal Mariumma (1946–1947)
Ali Raja Sultan Hamza (1947-?)
Ali Raja Sultana Aysha (?-2006)
Ali Raja Sultana Zainaba Aysha Beevi (2006–present)

Modern Olympic Games

2010-11-08T03:48:00.000-08:00

The best amateur athletes in the world match skill and endurance in a series of contests called the Olympic Games. Almost every nation sends teams of selected athletes to take part. The purposes of the Olympic Games are to foster the ideal of a "sound mind in a sound body" and to promote friendship among nations.

The modern Olympic Games are named for athletic contests held in ancient Greece for almost 12 centuries. They were banned in AD 394 but were revived and made international in 1896. The Winter Games were added in 1924. World War I and World War II forced cancellation of the Olympics in 1916, 1940, and 1944, but they resumed in 1948 and are held every four years. After 1992 the Winter and Summer Games were no longer held within the same calendar year. Winter Games were scheduled for 1994, after only a two-year interval, and every four years thereafter. The Summer Games were scheduled for 1996, and every four years thereafter.

Summer and Winter Sports

Summer sports include archery, basketball, boxing, canoeing, cycling, equestrian events (horseback riding), fencing, field hockey, gymnastics, handball, judo, rowing, shooting, soccer, swimming, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo, weight lifting, wrestling, and yachting. Winter events include skating, skiing, bobsledding, luge, tobogganing, ice hockey, and the biathlon (skiing-shooting).

The most exacting track and field event is the decathlon (from the Greek words deka, meaning "ten," and athlon, "contest"). Contestants compete in ten different running, jumping, and throwing events. The athlete scoring the greatest total number of points is the winner. The pentathlon, consisting of five such events, was discontinued after 1924. It was restored in the 1948 games as the modern pentathlon, based upon five military skills--fencing, riding, running, shooting, and swimming. The marathon race, covering 26 miles 385 yards, honors the ancient Greek runner Pheidippides, who ran from Marathon to Athens to announce the Greek victory against the Persians.

Women take part in separate summer and winter events. Ten new women's summer competitions added in 1984 included the marathon and a 49-mile cycling event. The pentathlon, introduced in 1964, was replaced by the heptathlon, which consists of 100-meter hurdles, shot put, high jump, long jump, javelin throw, and 200- and 800-meter races. Additional events for women in the 1992 Winter and Summer Games included the biathlon, 10-kilometer walk, baseball, and judo.

Highlights of the Modern Games

One of the most dramatic feats of the Olympics was the triumph of the United States track and field team in 1896. Competing as unofficial representatives, the ten-man squad reached Athens barely in time to participate. They won nine out of 12 events.

In 1912 Jim Thorpe, a Native American, became the only man to win both the decathlon and pentathlon in one year. Officials canceled his record and took back his medals when they learned that he had played professional baseball. His medals were restored posthumously in 1982. In track and field, Jesse Owens, a black American, won four gold medals including a team medal in 1936. The first woman to win three individual gold medals was Fanny Blankers-Koen of The Netherlands. The first athletes to win the decathlon twice were Bob Mathias of the United States, in 1948 and 1952, and Daley Thompson of Great Britain, in 1980 and 1984. The first perfect 10.0 in Olympic gymnastics was scored by Nadia Comaneci of Romania, who received seven perfect scores and three gold medals in 1976.

In the 1964 Winter Games the Soviet speed skater Lidya Skoblikova was the first athlete to win four individual gold medals. Her feat was duplicated in the 1968 Summer Games by the Czech gymnast Vera Caslavska.

In 1972 the United States swimmer Mark Spitz won a record seven gold medals at a single Olympics. Swimmers John Naber of the United States and Kornelia Ender of East Germany each won four gold medals in the Summer Games in 1976.

The all-time individual medal winner was the American track athlete Ray C. Ewry, who won eight events in the 1900, 1904, and 1908 Games.

The 1972 Summer Games in Munich, West Germany, became a tragedy when Palestinian terrorists murdered 11 Olympic team members from Israel. In a protest against a New Zealand rugby tour of South Africa about 30 African nations boycotted the 1976 Summer Games in Montreal, Que. To protest the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan more than 60 countries, led by the United States, withdrew from the 1980 Summer Games in Moscow. The Soviet Union, which first participated in 1952, withdrew from the 1984 Summer Games in Los Angeles.

Scandals rocked the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul. Ten athletes were disqualified after drug tests revealed steroid abuse. Charges of bias and incompetence in the officiating at the boxing events led to two-year suspensions for five Korean boxers and officials and several other judges and referees.

The 1992 games were unusual in that there were no more Soviet teams; the Soviet Union had split up in December 1991. The teams that participated from its former republics, sometimes still wearing the old Soviet uniforms, represented either now-independent Baltic states or the Commonwealth of Independent States, which had been formed from 11 of the former Soviet republics. Nevertheless, at the Winter Games in Albertville the Commonwealth's United Team came in second, after Germany, in number of medals won.

In the 1896 Olympic Games there were fewer than 500 athletes representing 13 nations. In 1988 the Seoul games drew entries from a record total of 160 countries. While the number of athletes who competed in Los Angeles did not surpass the high of 10,000 set at Munich in 1972, the 1984 games set records for the largest total attendance--almost 5.8 million people--and the most gold medals for one country--83 for the United States.

The centennial Olympic Games opened in Atlanta, Ga., with more than 10,000 athletes from a record 197 nations in attendance. The opening ceremonies, which began 16 days of athletic competition, featured a tribute to the ancient Greek games and slain civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. Former world heavyweight boxing champion and Olympic gold medalist Muhammad Ali lit the Olympic torch, which completed a 84-day, 15,000-mile (24,000-kilometer) trek across the United States. The games featured 28 delegations that were participating for the first time, including athletes from the Czech Republic, FYROM, and Burundi, and Palestinians competing under the name Palestine. Tight security and Atlanta's hot and humid August weather were major concerns for Olympic organizers and those attending the games. In spite of security precautions, a homemade pipe bomb loaded with nails and screws exploded at a late-night concert in Centennial Olympic Park, killing one person and wounding more than 100 others. In addition, a Turkish television cameraman died of a heart attack while running to film the blast. No one claimed responsibility for the attack.

International Olympic Committee

The development and governance of the modern games are vested in the International Olympic Committee (IOC), founded in Paris in 1894. Its headquarters are in Lausanne, Switzerland. The original committee had 14 members; today there are about 70. These individuals are considered ambassadors from the committee to their national sports organizations and are dedicated to promoting amateur athletics. Normally there is only one member from each country. Presidents of the IOC are elected for an eight-year term and eligible for succeeding four-year terms.

Each country sending teams to the games must have its own National Olympic Committee. By 1988 there were 167 such committees. One responsibility of a national committee is arranging for its team's participation in the games, providing equipment, and getting the team to the game site and into specially arranged housing.

Official Olympic Anthem (Greek & English)

The Olympic Hymn (Greek and English) was written by Costis Palamas, one of Greece's most famous poets, in 1893 and was set to music by Spiros Samaras in 1896. The Hymn was adopted as the Official Olympic Hymn by the International Olympic Committee in 1957.

English Translation

Ancient immortal spirit, pure father
Of the beautiful, the great and the true,
Descend, appear, and emblaze this place
With the glory of your own earth and sky.
In the race, the grappling, and the toss,
Kindle the impulse in all noble contests,
Crown with the perennial wreath,
And fashion the steely and worthy body.

Plains, mountains, and seas glow in your presence
Like some great clear porphyrous shrine,
And every nation hurries here to your temple
In supplication, ancient immortal spirit.

Costis Palamas (1859-1942)

Brief History of the Ancient Olympic Games

2010-11-08T03:43:00.000-08:00

The Olympic Games begun at Olympia in Greece in 776 BC. The Greek calendar was based on the Olympiad, the four-year period between games. The games were staged in the wooded valley of Olympia in Elis. Here the Greeks erected statues and built temples in a grove dedicated to Zeus, supreme among the gods. The greatest shrine was an ivory and gold statue of Zeus. Created by the sculptor Phidias, it was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Scholars have speculated that the games in 776 BC were not the first games, but rather the first games held after they were organized into festivals held every four years as a result of a peace agreement between the city-states of Elis and Pisa. The Eleans traced the founding of the Olympic games to their King Iphitos, who was told by the Delphi Oracle to plant the olive tree from which the victors' wreaths were made.

According to Hippias of Elis, who compiled a list of Olympic victors c.400 BC, at first the only Olympic event was a 200-yard dash, called a stadium. This was the only event until 724 BC, when a two-stadia race was added. Two years later the 24-stadia event began, and in 708 the pentathlon was added and wrestling became part of the games. This pentathlon, a five-event match consisted of running, wrestling, leaping, throwing the discus, and hurling the javelin. In time boxing, a chariot race, and other events were included.

The victors of these early games were crowned with wreaths from a sacred olive tree that grew behind the temple of Zeus. According to tradition this tree was planted by Hercules (Heracles), founder of the games. The winners marched around the grove to the accompaniment of a flute while admirers chanted songs written by a prominent poet.

The Olympic Games were held without interruptions in ancient Greece. The games were even held in 480 BC during the Persian Wars, and coincided with the Battle of Thermopylae. Although the Olympic games were never suspended, the games of 364 BC were not considered Olympic since the Arkadians had captured the sanctuary and reorganized the games.

After the Battle of Chaironeia in 338 BC, Philip of Makedon and his son Alexander gained control over the Greek city-states. They erected the Philippeion (a family memorial) in the sanctuary, and held political meetings at Olympia during each Olympiad. In 146 BC, the Romans gained control of Greece and, therefore, of the Olympic games. In 85 BC, the Roman general Sulla plundered the sanctuary to finance his campaign against Mithridates. Sulla also moved the 175th Olympiad (80 BC) to Rome.

The games were held every four years from 776 BC to 393 AD, when they were abolished by the Christian Byzantine Emperor Theodosius I. The ancient Olympic Games lasted for 1170 years.

The successful campaign to revive the Olympics was started in France by Baron Pierre de Coubertin late in the 19th century. The first of the modern Summer Games opened on Sunday, March 24, 1896, in Athens, Greece. The first race was won by an American college student named James Connolly.

Chronology of athletic events added to the Olympic Games
According to the tradition of Hippias of Elis ca. 400 BC, the events of the Olympic Games were added to the program in the following order.

Year <-> Olympiad <-> Event

776 BC<->st Olympiad <->Stadium race

724 BC<-> 14th Olympiad <-> double-stadium race

720 BC<-> 15th Olympiad<-> long-distance race

708 BC<-> 18th Olympiad<-> Pentathlon

708 BC<-> 18th Olympiad<-> Wrestling

688 BC<-> 23rd Olympiad<-> Boxing

680 BC<-> 25th Olympiad<-> 4-horse chariot race

648 BC<-> 33rd Olympiad<-> horse race

648 BC<-> 33rd Olympiad<-> Pankration

520 BC<-> 65th Olympiad<-> race in armor

408 BC<-> 93rd Olympiad<-> 2-horse chariot race

Myths and the Olympic Games
Pelops myth

There are several Greek myths about how the games were started. The most common myth was the story of the hero Pelops, after whom the Peloponnese is named ("Pelops’ isle"). The story of Pelops was displayed prominently on the east pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus. Pelops was a prince from Lydia in Asia Minor who sought the hand of Hippodamia, the daughter of King Oinomaos of Pisa. Oinomaos challenged his daughter's suitors to a chariot race under the guarantee that any young man who won the chariot race could have Hippodamia as a wife. Any young man who lost the race would be beheaded, and the heads would be used as decoration for the palace of Oinomaos. With the help of his charioteer Myrtilos, Pelops devised a plan to beat Oinomaos in the chariot race. Pelops and Myrtilos secretly replaced the bronze linchpins of the King's chariot with linchpins made of wax. When Oinomaos was about to pass Pelops in the chariot race, the wax melted and Oinomaos was thrown to his death. Pelops married Hippodamia and instituted the Olympic games to celebrate his victory. A different version of the myth refers to the Olympic games as funeral games in the memory of Oinomaos.

Hercules (Herakles) myth

Another myth about the origin of the Olympic Games comes from the Tenth Olympian Ode of the poet Pindar. He tells the story of how Herakles, on his fifth labor, had to clean the stables of King Augeas of Elis. Herakles approached Augeas and promised to clean the stables for the price of one-tenth of the king's cattle. Augeas agreed, and Herakles rerouted the Kladeos and Alpheos rivers to flow through the stables. Augeas did not fulfill his promise, however, and after Herakles had finished his labors he returned to Elis and waged war on Augeas. Herakles sacked the city of Elis and instituted the Olympic Games in honor of his father, Zeus. It is said that Herakles taught men how to wrestle and measured out the stadium, or the length of the footrace.

The Importance of the Olympic Games
The Importance of Ancient Greek Athletics

The ancient Greeks were highly competitive and believed strongly in the concept of "agon", or "competition" or "contest". The ultimate Greek goal was to be the best. All aspects of life, especially athletics, were centered around this concept. It was therefore considered one of the greatest honors to win a victory at Olympia. The fact that the only prize given at Olympia was an olive wreath illustrates this point. The athletes competed for honor, not for material goods.

Athletics were of prime importance to the Greeks. The education of boys concentrated on athletics and music as well as academic subjects such as philosophy. Education took place in the gymnasion and the palaistra as well as the academy.

The Religious Aspects of the Ancient Olympic Games
In ancient Greece, games were closely connected to the worship of the gods and heroes. Games were held as part of religious ceremonies in honor of deceased heroes, a concept displayed in the funeral games for Patroklos in Book 23 of Homer's epic poem, The Iliad. Games were also held in the context of many ancient fertility festivals. The games at Olympia were connected with both the funeral games of Oinomaos, established by Pelops, and a fertility cult involving any number of gods and goddesses who were worshipped at the site. The Olympic games began to be usurped by the prominent cult of Zeus, and eventually lost much of their religious character.

The Olympic Games and the Greek Calendar

The Greek calendar was based on the conception of the four-year Olympiad. When Greek historians referred to dates, they most often referred to a year (i.e., first, second, third, fourth) within the Olympiad that the event occurred. The winner of the stadium race in a given year had the Olympiad named in honor of him. The first Olympiad is therefore known as that of Koroibos of Elis, the winner of the stadium race in 776 BC.

The Sacred Truce

The sacred truce was instituted during the month of the Olympiad. Messengers known as "spondorophoroi" carried the word of the truce and announced the date of the games all over the Greek world. The truce called for a cessation of all hostilities for a period of one month (later three months) to allow for the safe travel of athletes to and from Olympia. Armies and armed individuals were barred from entering the sanctuary. In addition, no death penalties could be carried out during the period of the truce.

The Internationalization of the Olympic Games

From the beginning, the games at Olympia served as a bond between Greeks and strengthened the Greek sense of national unity. During the Hellenistic period, Greeks who came to live in foreign surroundings such as Syria, Asia, and Egypt, strove to hold on to their culture. One of the ways to achieve this was to build athletic facilities and continue their athletic traditions. They organized competitions, and sent competitors from their towns to compete in the Panhellenic games.

In the 2nd century A.D., Roman citizenship was extended to everyone within the Roman empire. From then on, the participation of many competitors from outside of Greece in the Olympic games, gave them to a degree, international nature.

When the Greek government reinstated the games in 1896, this international character of the competitions was preserved by Baron de Coubertin. Now, 16 centuries later, the Olympic games attract competitors from countries all over the world.

Olympic Games host cities – Summer, Winter and Youth Olympic

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Summer Olympic Games

Year <--------> Olympiad <--------> Host city

1896 <--------> I <--------> Athens, Greece
1900 <--------> II <--------> Paris, France
1904 <--------> III <--------> St. Louis, United States
1906 <--------> III <--------> Athens, Greece
1908 <--------> IV <--------> London, United Kingdom
1912 <--------> V <--------> Stockholm, Sweden
1916 <--------> VI <--------> Berlin, Germany →

Cancelled because of World War I

1920 <--------> VII <--------> Antwerp, Belgium
1924 <--------> VIII <--------> Paris, France
1928 <--------> IX <--------> Amsterdam, Netherlands
1932 <--------> X <--------> Los Angeles, United States
1936 <--------> XI <--------> Berlin, Germany
1940 <--------> XII <--------> Tokyo, Japan and Helsinki, Finland

Cancelled because of World War II

1944 <--------> XIII <--------> London, United Kingdom →

Cancelled because of World War II

1948 <--------> XIV <--------> London, United Kingdom
1952 <--------> XV <--------> Helsinki, Finland
1956 <--------> XVI <--------> Melbourne, Australia and Stockholm, Sweden
1960 <--------> XVII <--------> Rome, Italy
1964 <--------> XVIII <--------> Tokyo, Japan
1968 <--------> XIX <--------> Mexico City, Mexico
1972 <--------> XX <--------> Munich, West Germany
1976 <--------> XXI <--------> Montreal, Canada
1980 <--------> XXII <--------> Moscow, Soviet Union
1984 <--------> XXIII <--------> Los Angeles, United States
1988 <--------> XXIV <--------> Seoul, South Korea
1992 <--------> XXV <--------> Barcelona, Spain
1996 <--------> XXVI <--------> Atlanta, United States
2000 <--------> XXVII <--------> Sydney, Australia
2004 <--------> XXVIII<--------> Athens, Greece
2008 <--------> XXIX <--------> Beijing, China
2012 <--------> XXX <--------> London, United Kingdom
2016 <--------> XXXI <--------> Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Winter Olympic Games

Year <--------> Olympiad <--------> Host city

1924 <--------> I <--------> Chamonix, France
1928 <--------> II <--------> St. Moritz, Switzerland
1932 <--------> III <--------> Lake Placid, United States
1936 <--------> IV <--------> Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
1940 <--------> V <--------> Sapporo, Japan +St. Moritz, Switzerland +Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany

Cancelled because of World War II

1944 <--------> V <--------> Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy

Cancelled because of World War II

1948 <--------> V <--------> St. Moritz, Switzerland
1952 <--------> VI <--------> Oslo, Norway
1956 <--------> VII <--------> Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy
1960 <--------> VIII <--------> Squaw Valley, United States
1964 <--------> IX <--------> Innsbruck, Austria
1968 <--------> X <--------> Grenoble, France
1972 <--------> XI <--------> Sapporo, Japan
1976 <--------> XII <--------> Denver, United States and Innsbruck, Austria
1980 <--------> XIII <--------> Lake Placid, United States
1984 <--------> XIV <--------> Sarajevo, Yugoslavia
1988 <--------> XV <--------> Calgary, Canada
1992 <--------> XVI <--------> Albertville, France
1994 <--------> XVII <--------> Lillehammer, Norway
1998 <--------> XVIII <--------> Nagano, Japan
2002 <--------> XIX <--------> Salt Lake City, United States
2006 <--------> XX <--------> Turin, Italy
2010 <--------> XXI <--------> Vancouver, Canada
2014 <--------> XXII <--------> Sochi, Russia

Youth Olympic Games

Year <--------> Olympiad <--------> Host city

2010 <--------> I (Summer) Singapore
2012 <--------> I (Winter) Innsbruck, Austria
2014 <--------> II (Summer) Nanjing, China
2016 <--------> II (Winter) To be determined

Indo-Pakistan Wars

2010-09-02T23:55:00.000-07:00

Indo-Pakistan War of 1947

This is also called the First Kashmir War. The war started in October 1947 when the Maharajah of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was pressured to accede to either of the newly independent states of Pakistan or India. Tribal forces prompted by Pakistan attacked and occupied the princely state, forcing the Maharajah to sign the "Agreement to the accession of the princely state to India". The United Nations was then invited by India to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of the Kashmiris must be ascertained. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. The war ended in December 1948 with the Line of Control dividing Kashmir into territories administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and northeastern areas).

Indo-Pakistan War of 1965

This war started following of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. India retaliated by launching an attack on Pakistan. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and was witness to the largest tank battle in military history since World War II. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.

Indo-Pakistan War of 1971

The war was unique in that it did not involve the issue of Kashmir, but was rather precipitated by the crisis brewing in erstwhile East Pakistan. Following Operation Searchlight, about 10 million Bengalis in East Pakistan took refuge in neighboring India. Because of the impending humanitarian crisis and its own interest in dismembering Pakistan , India intervened in the ongoing Bangladesh liberation movement. After a failed pre-emptive strike by Pakistan, full-scale hostilities between the two countries commenced. Within two weeks of intense fighting, Pakistani forces surrendered to India following which Bangladesh was created. This war saw the highest number of casualties in any of the India-Pakistan conflicts, as well as the largest number of prisoners of war since the Second World War after the surrender of nearly 90,000 Pakistani police and civilians.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1999

Commonly known as Kargil War, this conflict between the two countries was mostly limited. Pakistani troops along with Kashmiri insurgents infiltrated across the Line of Control (LoC) and occupied Indian Territory mostly in the Kargil district. Pakistani government believed that its nuclear weapons would deter a full-scale escalation in conflict but India launched a major military campaign to flush out the infiltrators. Due to Indian military advances and increasing foreign diplomatic pressure, Pakistan was forced to withdraw its forces back across the LoC.

Vitamins

2010-08-31T02:05:00.000-07:00

1 Name --- Vitamin A
Chemical name --- Retinol
Solubility --- Fat
Food source --- Cod liver oil, carrots
Year of discovery --- 1913
Deficiency disease --- Night-blindness and Keratomalacia
Overdose disease --- Hypervitaminosis A
Solubility --- Fat
Deficiency disease --- Night-blindness and Keratomalacia
Overdose disease --- Hypervitaminosis A

2 Name --- Vitamin B1
Chemical name --- Thiamine
Year of discovery --- 1910
Food source --- Rice bran
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Overdose disease --- Drowsiness or muscle relaxation with large doses.

3 Name --- Vitamin B2
Chemical name --- Riboflavin
Year of discovery --- 1920
Food source --- Meat, eggs
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Ariboflavinosis

4 Name --- Vitamin B3
Chemical name --- Niacin
Year of discovery --- 1936
Food source --- Meat, eggs, grains
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Pellagra
Overdose disease --- Liver damage (doses > 2g/day) and other problems

5 Name --- Vitamin B5
Chemical name --- Pantothenic acid
Year of discovery --- 1931
Food source --- Meats, whole grains, in many foods
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Paresthesia
Overdose disease --- Diarrhea; possibly nausea and heartburn.

6 Name --- Vitamin B6
Chemical name --- Pyridoxine
Year of discovery --- 1934
Food source --- Meat, dairy products.
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Anemia peripheral neuropathy.
Overdose disease --- Impairment of proprioception, nerve damage (doses > 100 mg/day)

7 Name --- Vitamin B7
Chemical name --- Biotin
Year of discovery --- 1931
Food source --- Meats, dairy products, eggs
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Dermatitis, enteritis

8 Name --- Vitamin B9
Chemical name --- Folic acid
Year of discovery --- 1941
Food source --- Leafy green vegetables
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects, such as neural tube defects
Overdose disease --- May mask symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency; other effects.

9 Name --- Vitamin B12
Chemical name --- Cobalamins
Year of discovery --- 1926
Food source --- Liver, eggs, animal products
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Megaloblastic anemia
Overdose disease --- No known toxicity

10 Name --- Vitamin C
Chemical name --- Ascorbic acid
Year of discovery --- 1920
Food source --- Citrus, most fresh foods
Solubility --- Water
Deficiency disease --- Scurvy
Overdose disease --- Vitamin C megadosage

11 Name --- Vitamin D
Chemical name --- Calciferol
Year of discovery --- 1920
Food source --- Cod liver oil
Solubility --- Fat
Deficiency disease --- Rickets and Osteomalacia
Overdose disease --- Hypervitaminosis D

12 Name --- Vitamin E
Chemical name --- Tocopherol
Year of discovery --- 1922
Food source --- Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils
Solubility --- Fat
Deficiency disease --- Deficiency is very rare; mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants.
Overdose disease --- Increased congestive heart failure seen in one large randomized study.

13 Name --- Vitamin K
Chemical name --- Phylloquinone/phytol naphthoquinone
Year of discovery --- 1929
Food source --- Leafy green vegetables
Solubility --- Fat
Deficiency disease --- Bleeding diathesis
Overdose disease --- Increases coagulation in patients taking warfarin.

Magna Carta - 1215

2010-08-25T04:07:00.000-07:00

Magna Carta or Magna Charta, the most famous document of British constitutional history, issued by King John at Runnymede under compulsion from the barons and the church in June, 1215.

When Richard the Lionhearted died in 1199 AD (when he was 42), his younger brother John became king. The lords (the rich men) of England hated John. This was partly because John had taxed everyone so much to pay for the Third Crusade, and partly because John seems to have just been a nasty suspicious kind of person. Compared to Philippe Augustus, who was king of France at the same time, John looked weak.

The Magna CartaIn order to take away some of John's power, Philippe Augustus chose to support the claims of another man, Arthur, to inherit Normandy instead of John. Arthur was John's nephew, the son of John's older brother Geoffrey who had died. John tried to solve this problem by capturing Arthur and having him killed, but this murder upset the lords of Normandy and Anjou. They decided they would rather be ruled by Philippe than by John, and so they agreed to fight on Phillippe's side. By 1204 John lost most of his land in France after all.

Once the French land was lost, the English lords began to really see England as a country and to think of themselves as different from the French people. It was about this time that English first started to really take shape as a language. (Before John, the lords in England all spoke French.) Chaucer wrote about this time - in English.

John continued to fight with everyone and lose: first with the Pope, and then when he tried to get his land in France back. By 1215 the English lords had had enough of this loser, and they got together an army and marched on London. John was forced to sign the paper they put in front of him, which is known as the Magna Carta. (Magna Carta means "Great Letter" in Latin). This letter wrote down two new ideas. The first was that the king had to obey the law, like other people. And the second idea was that if the king broke the law, the lords had the right to remove that king and choose a new one. The lords formed the council of the king, and that council could stop the king from doing things if the council thought they were wrong. In particular, the king could not collect new taxes unless the council said it was okay.

King John died the next year, in 1216, when he was 49 years old.

List of Dewans (Prime Ministers) of Travancore

2010-08-17T00:45:00.000-07:00

1 - Ramayyan Dalawa
2 - Martanda Pillai
3 - Raja Kesavadas 1789-1798
4 - Odiery Jayanthan Sankaran Nampoothiri 1798-1799
5 - Velu Thampi Dalawa 1799-1809
6 - Oommini Thampi 1809-1811
7 - Col. John Munroe 1811-1814
8 - Devan Padmanabhan Menon 1814-1814
9 - Bappu Rao (Acting) 1814-1815
10 - Sanku Annavi Pillai 1815-1815
11 - Raman Menon 1815-1817
12 - Reddy Rao 1817-1821
13 - Dewan Rajah Sir T. Madhava RaoVenkatta Rao 1821-1830
14 - Subbarao 1830-1837
15 - Ranga Rao (Acting) 1837-1838
16 - Venkatta Rao (Again) 1838-1839
17 - Subbarao (Again) 1839-1842
18 - Krishna Rao (Acting) 1842-1843
19 - Reddy Rao (Again) 1843-1845
20 - Srinivasa Rao (Acting) 1845-1846
21 - Krishna Rao 1846-1858
22 - T. Madhava Rao 1858-1872
23 - Seshayya Sastri 1872-1877
24 - Nanoo Pillai 1877-1880
25 - Ramiengar 1880-1887
26 - T. Rama Rao 1887-1892
27 - S. Shungrasoobyer 1892-1898
28 - K. Krishnaswamy Rao 1898-1904
29 - V. P. Madhava Rao 1904-1906
30 - S. Gopalachari 1906-1907
31 - P. Rajagopalachari 1907-1914
32 - M. Krishnan Nair 1914-1920
33 - Raghava Aiya 1920-1925
34 - M. E. Watts 1925-1929
35 - V. S. Subramanya Iyer 1929-1932
36 - T. Austin 1932-1934
37 - Muhammad Habibullah 1934-1936
38 - C. P. Ramaswami Iyer 1936-1947
39 - PGN Unnithan 1947-1947

List of Malayalam Literary Awards

2010-08-13T00:27:00.000-07:00

Jnanapith Award

1965 G. Sankara Kurup -- Odakkuzhal
1980 S. K. Pottakkad -- Oru desathinte kadha
1984 Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai -- Kayar
1995 M. T. Vasudevan Nair -- Randamoozham

Vayalar Ramavarma Award

1977 Lalithambika Antharjanam -- Agnisakshi
1978 P. K. Balakrishnan -- Ini jnan Urangatte
1979 Malayattoor Ramakrishnan -- Yanthram
1980 Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai -- Kayar
1981 Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon -- Makarakoithu
1982 O. N. V. Kurup -- Uppu
1983 Vilasini -- Avakasikal
1984 Sugathakumari -- Ambalamoni
1985 M. T. Vasudevan Nair -- Randamoozham
1986 N. N. Kakkadu -- Sabhalameeyathra
1987 N. Krishna Pillai -- Prathipathram Bhashanabhedam
1988 Thirunellur Karunakaran -- Thirunellur Karunakarante Kavithakal
1989 Sukumar Azhikkod -- Thathwamasi
1990 C. Radhakrishnan -- Munpe Parakkunna Pakshikal
1991 O. V. Vijayan -- Gurusagaram
1992 M. K. Sanu -- Changambuzha-Nakshathrangalude Snehabhajanam
1993 Anand -- Marubhoomikal Undakunnathu
1994 K. Surendran -- Guru
1995 Thikkodiyan -- Arangau Kanatha Nadan
1996 Perumbadavam Sridharan -- Oru Sangheerthanam Pole
1997 Madhavikutty -- Neermathalam Pootha Kalam
1998 S. Guptan Nair -- Srishtiyum Srashtavum
1999 Kovilan -- Thattakam
2000 T. Padmanabhan -- Puzha Kadannu Marangalude Idayilekku
2001 M. V. Devan -- Devaspandanam
2002 K. Ayyappapanicker -- Ayyappapanickerude krithikal
2003 M. Mukundan -- Kesavante Vilapangal
2004 Sarah Joseph -- Alahayude Penmakkal
2005 K. Sachidanadan -- Sakshyangal
2006 Sethu -- Adayalangal
2007 M. Leelavathy -- Appuvinte anweshanam
2008 M. P. Veerendra Kumar -- Haimavathabhuvil
2009 M. Thomas Mathew -- Marar- Lavanyanubhavathinte Yuktishilpam

Vallathol Award

1991 Pala Narayanan Nair
1992 Sooranad Kunjan Pillai
1993 Balamaniyamma, Vaikom Muhammad Basheer
1994 Ponkunnam Varkey
1995 M. P. Appan
1996 Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
1997 Akkitham Achuthan Nambudiri
1998 K. M. George
1999 S. Guptan Nair
2000 P. Bhaskaran
2001 T. Padmanabhan
2002 M. Leelavathy
2003 Sugathakumari
2004 Ayyappa Paniker
2005 M. T. Vasudevan Nair
2006 O. N. V. Kurup
2007 Sukumar Azhikode
2008 Puthussery Ramachandran
2009 Kavalam Narayana Panicker

Ezhuthachan Award

1993 Sooranad Kunjan Pillai
1994 Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
1995 Balamani Amma
1996 K. M. George
1997 Ponkunnam Varkey
1998 M. P. Appan
1999 K. P. Narayana Pisharody
2000 Pala Narayanan Nair
2001 O. V. Vijayan
2002 Kamala Surayya (Madhavikkutty)
2003 T. Padmanabhan
2004 Sukumar Azhikkode
2005 S. Gupthan Nair
2006 Kovilan
2007 O. N. V. Kurup
2008 Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri
2009 Sugathakumari

Muttathu Varkey Award

1992 O. V. Vijayan
1993 Vaikom Muhammad Basheer
1994 M. T. Vasudevan Nair
1995 Kovilan
1996 Kakkanadan
1997 V. K. N.
1998 M. Mukundan
1999 Punathil Kunjabdulla
2000 Anand (writer)
2001 N. P. Mohammed
2002 Ponkunnam Varkey
2003 Sethu
2004 C. Radhakrishnan
2005 Paul Zacharia
2006 Kamala Surayya (Madhavikkutty)
2007 T. Padmanabhan
2008 M. Sukumaran
2009 N. S. Madhavan
2010 P. Valsala

Kendra Sahitya Academy Awards (Malayalam)

1955 R. Narayanappanikkar -- Bhashacharitram
1956 I. C. Chacko, Illiparambil -- Paananeeya Pradyoditham
1957 Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai -- Chemmeen
1958 K. P. Kesava Menon -- Kazhinjakalam'
1960 P. C. Kuttikrishnan -- Sundarikalum Sundaranmarum
1963 G. Sankara Kurup -- Viswadarshanam
1964 P. Kesava Dev -- Ayalkkar
1965 Balamaniamma -- Muthassi
1966 Kuttikrishna Marar -- Kala Jeevitham Thanne
1967 P. Kunhiraman Nair -- Thamarathoni
1969 Idasseri Govindan Nair -- Kavile Pattu
1971 M. T. Vasudevan Nair -- Kaalam
1971 Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon -- Vida
1972 S. K. Pottakkad -- Oru Desathinte Kadha
1973 Akkitham Achuthan Nambodiri -- Balidarsanam
1974 Vennikkulam Gopala Kurup -- Kaamasurabhi
1975 O. N. V. Kurup -- Aksharam
1976 Cherukaadu -- Jeevithapatha
1977 Lalithambika Antharjanam -- Agnisaakshi
1978 Sugathakumari -- Raatrimazha
1979 N. V. Krishna Warrier -- Vallatholinte Kavyasilpam
1980 Punathil Kunjabdulla -- Smarakasilakal
1981 Vilasini -- Avakasikal
1982 V. K. N. -- Payyankathakal
1983 S. Guptan Nair -- Theranjedutha Prabandhangal
1984 K. Ayyappa Panikkar -- Ayyappapanikkarude Kavithakal
1985 Sukumar Azhikkode -- Thathwamasi
1985 Kamaladas -- Theranjedutha Kavithakal (English)
1986 M. Leelavathi -- Kavithadhwani
1987 N. Krishna Pillai -- Prathipaathram Bhashana Bhedam
1988 C. Radhakrishnan -- Spandamapinikale Nandi
1989 Olappamanna -- Nizhalana
1990 O. V. Vijayan -- Gurusaagaram
1991 M. P. Sankunni Nair -- Chathravum Chamaravum
1992 M. Mukundan -- Daivathinte Vikrithikal
1993 N. P. Muhammad -- Daivathinte Kannu
1994 Vishnu Narayanan Nambudiri -- Raappakalukal
1995 Thikkodiyan -- Arangukanaatha Nadan
1996 T. Padmanabhan -- Gowri
1997 Anand -- Govardhanante Yaathrakal
1998 Kovilan -- Thattakam
1999 C. V. Sreeraman -- Sreeramante Kadhakal
2000 R. Ramachandran -- R. Ramachandrante Kavithakal
2001 Attoor Ravi Varma -- Attoor Ravi Varmayude Kavithakal
2002 K. G. Sankara Pillai -- K.G. Sankara Pillayude Kavitakal (Poems)
2003 Sarah Joseph -- Alahayude Penmakkal (Novel)
2004 Paul Zachariah -- Zachariyayute Kathakal (Short Stories)
2005 G. V. Kakkanadan -- Jappana Pukayila (Short Stories)
2006 M. Sukumaran -- Chuvanna Chinnangal (Short Stories)
2007 Sethu -- Adayalangal (Novel)
2008 K. P. Appan (posthumously) -- Madhuram Ninte Jeevitham
2009 U. A. Khader -- Thrikottoor Peruma

Longest Indian Novel

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Longest Indian Novel is Avakasikal, written by MK Menon in Malayalam under the penname "Vilasini". The novel runs into 3,958 pages in four volumes and took ten years to complete. MK Menon spent the best part of his life abroad as a journalist. At an early stage in his literary career he set his mind on writing long novels. MK Menon received Sahitya Akademi Award for Avakasikal in 1981 and Vayalar Award in 1983. Sahitya Akademi is an independent organistion, supported by Government of India, and dedicated to the promotion of literature in the languages of India. Vayalar Award is given for the best literary work in Malayalam. Other famous novels of MK Menon include "Oonjal" and "Agnisaakshi".

The French Revolution (1789 – 1799).

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The French Revolution was a time of great turmoil in French history. It began in 1789 and ended in 1799. During the French Revolution, the previous absolute monarchy and the entire social three estate system was overthrown. People in the third estate were especially tired of being treated like this, and wanted radical changes right away,

Louis XVI was the first king to come into power at the start of the revolution. He was a very weak and indecisive ruler, which was terrible for the country at that point. He also had a wife, Marie-Antoinette from Austria, who was obsessed with spending money. Together, they put the country into debt with over 2 billion livres. Despite national lack of food, they always ate immense amounts, and spent money which didn't even belong to them, but to the country. This put the country into a worse state, and eventually, both Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were executed.

The Third Estate was tired of being treated how they were. They wanted more respect and an actual say in the government. They were given a tithe for their crops, which caused them starvation and malnutrition. They had the most trouble paying for bread, while others feasted away. Finally, they began violent revolts.

Then, in 1794, after Louis XVI's execution, a ruler named Robespierre came into power. He was a terrible ruler, who killed thousands of men by the guillotine. There weren't fair trials, and anyone suspected was killed. Finally, he was arrested and overthrown one year later, and the New Constitution, with much newer ideas that gave people unalienable rights, was issued.

After many reforms, and new enlightened ideas, the revolution was over. Clearly, with all of these new reforms, the third estate had gotten exactly what they wanted and succeeded in the revolution. There were new ideas such as enlightenment, citizenship, nationalism, and inalienable rights. After this ten years of upheaval and turmoil, the new, modern France was finally formed, inspired by the American Revolution.

List of National Highways in India

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List of Tiger Reserves in India

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List of Biosphere Reserves in India

2010-07-29T23:41:00.000-07:00

List of National Parks in India

2010-07-29T23:30:00.000-07:00

Gupta Empire

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The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. It was ruled by the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 CE and covered most of northern India.

Origins

The origins of the Guptas are shrouded in obscurity. The Chinese traveller I-tsing provides the first evidence of the Gupta kingdom in Magadha. He came to India in 672 CE and heard of 'Maharaja Sri-Gupta' who built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mrigasikhavana. I-tsing gives the date for this event merely as '500 years before'. This does not match with other sources and hence we can assume that I-tsing's computation was a mere guess.

The most likely date for the reign of Sri-Gupta is c. 240-280 CE His successor Ghatotkacha ruled probably from c. 280-319 CE In contrast to his successor, he is also referred to in inscriptions as 'Maharaja' .

At the beginning of the 4th century the Guptas established and ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Uttar Pradesh.

The Guptas ascendant

The Gupta dynasty ruled India north of the Vindhya Range during the 4th and 5th centuries. Though not as vast as Mauryan empire, The Gupta era left a deep and wide cultural impact not only in the subcontinent but on the adjacent Asian countries as well. We get plenty of information about this illustrious dynasty through coins, inscriptions, monuments and Sanskrit classics.

The Gupta rulers were great conquerors and good administrators. They checked the infiltration of foreign tribes like Sakas and Hunas and established political stability. Economic prosperity followed and led to cultural expansion.

Sanskrit language and literature were reached its peak during the Gupta era. Poets Kalidasa, Dandi, Visakhadatta, Shudraka, and Bharavi all belong to this period. Many puranas and shastras were composed and famous commentaries on sacred works appeared. Buddhist and Jain literature, which was produced earlier in Pali, Ardhamagadhi and other Prakrit languages, began to appear in Sanskrit. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture. Of the twenty-eight Ajanta caves, most of them were constructed during this period. Gupta inscriptions, some of them on "victory pillars" provide first hand information not only about royalty but society in general.

Books on medicine, veterinary science, mathematics, astronomy and astrophysics were written. The famous Aryabhata and Varahamihira belong to this age. Overseas trade and commerce flourished. Hindu and Buddhist mythology, architecture, along with religion took root in Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia and other countries. The Chinese monk Lui Kang who was in India and Sri Lanka between 399 and 414 noticed general prosperity and peace-loving nature of the people.

This period is regarded as the golden age of Indian culture. The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent and creative architecture, sculpture, and painting. The wall-paintings of Ajanta Caves in the central Deccan are considered among the greatest and most powerful works of Indian art. The paintings in the cave represent the various lives of the Buddha, but also are the best source we have of the daily life in India at the time.

The Gupta established a strong central government which also allowed a degree of local control. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. This included a strict caste system, or class system. The peace and prosperity created under Gupta leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.

The Gupta Dynasty declined due to weak rulers and a series of invasions, but many of their cultural and intellectual achievements were saved and transmitted to other cultures and live on today. The Gupta period is considered something of a golden age, marked by great achievements in literature, music, art, architecture, and philosophy. Lui Kang wrote of beautiful cities, fine hospitals and universities, and described a content and prosperous people.

Main Gupta rulers

Chandragupta

Ghatotkacha (c. 280–319) CE, had a son named Chandragupta. In a breakthrough deal, Chandragupta was married to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi—the main power in Magadha. With a dowry of the kingdom of Magadha (capital Pataliputra) and an alliance with the Lichchhavis, Chandragupta set about expanding his power, conquering much of Magadha, Prayaga and Saketa. He established a realm stretching from the Ganga (Ganga) river to Prayaga (modern-day Allahabad) by 320. Chandragupta was the first of the Guptas to be referred to as 'Maharajadhiraja' or 'King of Kings'.

Samudragupta

Chandragupta died in 335 and was succeeded by his son Samudragupta, a tireless conqueror. He took the kingdoms of Shichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He then took the Kingdom of Kota and attacked the tribes in Malvas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm, his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch. He performed Ashwamedha yajna (horse sacrifice) to underline the importance of his conquest.

Samduragupta was not only a warrior but also a great patron of art and literature. The important scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu and Asanga. He was a poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka's buddhist king to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.

He was succeeded by his son Ramagupta, who was captured by the Saka Satraps (Kshatrapas) and was soon succeeded by his brother Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II

Chandragupta II, the Sun of Power (Vikramaditya), ruled until 413. He married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka king of Deccan, and gained a valuable ally. Only marginally less war-like than his father, he expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409, but with his main opponent Rudrasimha III defeated by 395, and crushing the Bengal (Vanga) chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast-to-coast, established a second (trading) capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.

Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of the sacred and sensual elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Much of advances was recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Fa-hsien.

The court of Chandragupta was made even illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the navaratna, a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was the immortal Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the ages to come. Kalidasa was particularly known for his fine exploitation of the sringara (erotic) element in his verse.

Kumaragupta I

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. Known as the Mahendraditya, he ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire.

Skandagupta

Skandagupta is generally considered the last of the great rulers. He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as Indo-Hephthalites or Hunas, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 455, But the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his son Narasimhagupta Baladitya.

Military organization

The Imperial Guptas could not have achieved their successes through force of arms without an efficient martial system. Historically, the best accounts of this comes not from the Hindus themselves but from Chinese and Western observers. However, a contemporary Indian document, regarded as a military classic of the time, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, offers some insight into the military system of the Guptas. Like Indian kings before them, and centuries afterwards, the Guptas would have utilized war elephants. These thick hided beasts, supplemented by additional armour and the soldiers that they carried, would have provided a powerful offensive and psychological weapon against an unprepared foe. Another advantage was that they could cause the horses of enemy cavalry to panic from their scent, as the Macedonians discovered. However, their use carried the grave risk of the elephants panicking and stampeding, which more clever opponents used to their advantage.

The use of chariots had heavily declined by the time of the Guptas, having already proved their uselessness against the Macedonians, Scythians, and other invaders. In response, the Guptas seemed to have utilized heavy cavalry clad in mail armour and equipped with maces and lances, who would have used shock action to break the enemy line, much like the clibanarii of the Sassanids and Byzantines in the same era. It is unclear whether they were used to the extent of elephants.

The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of the dominant weapons of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. Unlike the composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less prone to warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. Iron shafts were used against armored elephants, and fire arrows were also part of the bowmen's arsenal. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords.

The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war machines.

The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these warriors were a main component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna) enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably better disciplined. Able commanders like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for combined armed tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the concerted use elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the Northwest. Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters.

The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the inherent defects of the Gupta army, which after all had initially defeated these barbarians under Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability of the Guptas to resist foreign invasion, as was simultenously occurring in Western Europe and China.

Huna invasions and the end of empire

Narasimhagupta (467-473) was followed by Kumaragupta II (473-476) and Buddhagupta (476-495?). In the 480's the Hephthalite king Toramana broke through the Gupta defenses in the northwest, and much of the empire was overrun by the Hunas by 500. The empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor, Mihirakula; the Hunas conquered several provinces of the empire, including Malwa, Gujarat, and Thanesar, broke away under the rule of local dynasties. It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Hunas, and allied with the independent kingdoms to drive the Hunas from most of northern India by the 530's. The succession of the sixth-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the last recognized ruler of the dynasty's main line was Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550.

The Guptas of Magadha

A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century that, for a brief time, rivalled that of the Guptas in extent.

Arts during Guptas

Some of India's most magnificient works of art were produced during the Gupta era. The famous cave paintings at Ajanta, the Sarnath Buddha, the Deogarh Dashavatara Temple panels and the Udaygiri Varaha Cave are some marvellous products of the Gupta age. Also, during the Gupta Empire, metal work and various sculptures were made.

Ancient History of India

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Ancient History of India

From the big bang, the primeval swamp to the Indus Valley Civilization. There is a tendency to sometimes include the Indus Valley Civilization in prehistory, since technically prehistory includes everything that happened before the Word happened. However, technically again the Indus Valley Civilization did have a script, although it has not been decoded yet. So, it's generally included in Ancient History nowadays. For India, it begins from the Indus Valley Civilization (for which the date is a matter of hot debate, but historians have agreed to disagree on 3000BC) to just after the king Harsha Vardhana, which is around 700-800BC.

During or after this period came Aryans who composed these evocative hymns to nature and celebrated life exuberantly referred to themselves as Aryas usually anglicized as Aryan meaning 'noble'. The 6th Century B.C. was the period of Magadh Kingdom. Chandragupta Maurya ousted the oppressive ruler of Magadh to find his own dynasty that existed from 322 - 298 B.C.

The most famous Maurya King Ashoka the Great ruled from 273 - 232 B.C over a large kingdom stretching from Kashmir and Peshawar in the North and Northwest to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East. He after witnessing the carnage at the battle field of Kalinga (269 B.C.) in Orissa, dedicated himself to Dharmma ( righteousness ).

In the subsequent centuries, after the Ashoka empire disintegrated, India suffered a series of invasions, and often fell under the spell of foreign rulers - Indo Bactrians, the Sakas and others. After the next 400 years of instability the Guptas established their kingdom.

Kalidas, the famous Sanskrit poet and dramatist, author of Abhijnana Shankuntalam, Kumarsambhavam and Meghadutam is believed to have adorned the Gupta court. Also the great mathematicians like Aryabhatta and astronomers like Varahmihir lived during this period. The dazzling wall paintings of the Ajanta caves too are traced back to this era.

Cholas, Pandayas and Pallavas ruled over the southern part of India during the medieval period of India’s history. Cholas ruled the territory of Deccan (today the districts of Thanjavur and Tiruchirapally) while the Pandyas reined around present day Tirunelvelli and Madurai.

Pallavas of Kanchi rose to prominence in the 4th Century A.D. and ruled unchallenged for about four hundred years. The Nayanar and Alvar saint poets belong to this period. The gemlike shore temples at Mahabalipuram date to this period. The Cholas overthrew the Pallavas were in the 9th Century and regained political primacy in south India. The 15th Century saw the decline of the Pandyas.

Indus Valley Civilization

It is without a doubt that the civilization one of the most important finds in the world of archeology. In one stroke the age of Indian history was pushed back by more than a millennium, deep into 3000BC. This effectively exploded the myth that everything in India before the coming of the Aryans was enveloped in the supreme darkness of one primeval swamp. Here was a civilization that was not only well-developed, but actually far more sophisticated than that of the Aryans.

The Indus Valley Civilization said its last hurray roughly in 2200 BC. The beginning and end of the Indus Valley Civilization are both a matter of debate. Obviously there must have been a lead up to it. Suddenly, out of the blue, a people could not have emerged complete with their perfect town planning, neat houses, lovely jewellery and loads of make-up. So where did they come from? and then having come, just where did they disappear?

Popular theory which is accepted by the man on the street is that the people of the civilization (commonly referred to as the Harappans) were chased out by the Aryans and went down south. The present South Indians are their descendants. Recent research also threw up evidence that the Aryans’ descendants actually still survive as santals (tribals) in various jungle areas in India.

The Settlement of Aryans

It took the tall, beautiful, long limbed Aryans surprisingly little time to get used to their new home. Initially, they settled in the area of Sapt-Sindhu, which included Punjab, Kashmir, Sindh, Kabul and Gandhara (Kandhar). The chief sources of this period which have come down to us are The Vedas and the Epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, which through their stories and hymns tell us about the expansion of the Aryans. It took them about a thousand years to bring the entire northern region under their control. Then they turned their attention to the south. The epic Ramayana is a symbolic tale which tells of the Aryan expansion to the south – the good, almost godly, aryaputra (an Aryan's son) king Rama surging forth to finish off the evil Dasyu (that was what the Aryans called the natives) Ravana.

Aryans Political System

The political system of the Aryans in their initial days here was amazingly complex, though quite ingenious. They hung around together in small village settlements (which later grew to kingdoms) and the basis of their political and social organization was, not surprisingly, the clan or kula.

Being of somewhat militant nature, this was very much a patriarchal society, with the man in the house expected to keep his flock in control.

Groups of kulas together formed a Grama or village, which was headed by a Gramina. Many villages formed another political unit called a Visya, headed by a Visyapati. The Visyas in turn collected under a Jana, which was ruled by a Rajana or king. However, the precise relationship between the grama, the visya and the jana has not been clearly defined anywhere.

The King Was The Supreme Power

The king was yet to become that the all-powerful monarch that he eventually became. Although he lived as befitted a king, he was supposed to work in tandem with the people's wishes.

He had an elaborate court of many officials, including the chief queen (Mahishi) who was expected to help in the decision making process. Two assemblies, Sabha and Samiti further assisted the king. The Samiti was roughly equivalent to our modern Lower House or the Lok Sabha, with members that represented the people, and the Sabha was a permanent body of selected men.

So everything was very proper and democratic. This was obviously speedily amended. As one Jana swallowed another and kingdoms arose out of their ashes, the king became increasingly the despot that we are all more familiar with. Women seemed to have had it good at this time, but then through almost all of the ancient period of Indian history women continued to command respect and considerable pull in society. Although by the time of the Mahabharata their position had fallen enough for them to be treated as a man's property, as is evinced by the episode where Yudhistra gambles away his wife (see Mahabharata).

No Rigidity In Caste System

The caste system as is known now does not seem to have evolved yet. and even when it did, it was not the rigid thing it became by the time of the Guptas but was a loose social system where people could move up and down the social scale. Aryan’s worshipped nature gods – they prayed to the Usha (Dawn), Prajapati (The Creator), Rudra (Thunder), Indra (Rain), Surya (Sun) and so on. These gods and goddesses were appeased by prayers and sacrifices.

As time went this idyllic life among the beautiful wooded country with a benevolent monarch, a democratic senate and an open social system failed to survive. Power won over all else.

Period of Social Reform

By the sixth century BC things had become complicated and rigid enough for socio-religious reformers like the Buddha and Mahavira to want change. The priestly class, as happened the world over, became increasingly the real masters in the socio-economic-political scheme of affairs. Rituals became rigid, sacrifices elaborate and religion increasingly expensive.

Birth of Mahavira [550 BC]

Vardhamana Mahavira was not the founder of Jainism, but he reformed and refined previous teachings of the Jaina tradition. Mahavira was born in 599 BC in Kaundinyapura near modern Patna. Scholars debate the birth date and place. Some claim it to be as late as 490 BC in Kundapura near Vaishali or in Vaishali, which is in present day Bihar. Mahavira was born to a high-ranking family and received an education fit for a nobleman. He learned about literature, art, philosophy, and military and administrative sciences. Mahavira married a princess named Yasoda and had a daughter named Anojja. When Mahavira was 28, his parents died, and Mahavira wanted to abandon everything and everyone.

To please his brother, Mahavira decided to stay at his home until the age of 30. For those two years, Mahavira practiced self-discipline and gave up luxuries by giving charity to beggars.

When Mahavira left his family at the age of 30, he also gave up all property, wealth, and pleasures. He left his home and mediated, fasted, and went without water. After all this, Mahavira tore out his hair and wandered naked with a piece of cloth on his shoulder. Mahavira essentially became a homeless man. This did not bother Mahavira, because he was going to teach the Jain Religion. Vardhamma Mahavira became the 24th Tirthankara or "ford-maker" of the Jain or Jaina Religion.

Mahavira traveled naked to various parts of northern India, teaching and preaching. These parts included Bihar, western Bengal, and western Uttar Pradesh. Mahavira attracted all kinds of people, including kings, queens, rich, poor and both men and women.

Mahavira taught that the center of right conduct was the five great vows of which he preached until his death. Four were from the previous teacher Parshva, and the fifth was his own. The vows were (asteya) to not take anyone's private possessions, (satya) to always tell the truth, (aparigraha) to not own any property, (ahimsa) to not injure or annoy any living thing, and (brahmacarya) to have complete celibacy. Parshva let his followers wear clothing, but Mahavira did not want his followers to wear any. In this, Mahavira was very faithful to his teachings. The most noticeable extent of these vows was that Mahavira let vermin inhabit his body, because it was wrong to kill any living creature. Mahavira vowed to neglect his body and agreed to suffer all things that could happen. "Mahavira taught 73 methods for exertion in goodness by which many creatures, who believed in and accepted them, studied, learned, understood, and practiced them, and acted according to them, obtained perfection, enlightenment, deliverance, beatitude, and an end to all misery". This was the very extreme form of the vow. He gave up all he had and was celibate.

Mahavira's quest, for himself and others, was to finally reach nirvana or salvation. Nirvana is the attainment of the blissful state of one's self and of total freedom from the cycle of birth, death, life, pain, and misery. The final step for Mahavira and all that follow him was the final removal of the karma or self. Mahavira attained nirvana the 13th year of his new Jain life. This happened while he was fasting, not drinking water for two days, and meditating. Not only did Mahavira attain nirvana but he also attained kevala. Kevala is the absolute knowledge and is the highest awareness.

Vardhamma Mahavira finally died in 527 BC at the age of 72. Mahavira is believed to have become Siddha, never to go through the cycle of birth and death. Mahavira was able to rid himself of karma by destroying it and won his soul's salvation by never returning to earth.

Gautama Buddha [563-483 BC]

Sidhartha was born (c. 563 BC; Kapilavastu, Nepal) into the Gautama family of the Shakaya clan. The Shakayas were members of the priestly-warrior caste. In fact, Sidhartha's father was the head of the tribe so Sidhartha was a prince and seemed destined to rule. He lived a luxurious life and the received the best education his father's wealth could provide, but his father also sheltered him from life's hardships.

He married a woman named Yashodhara and they lived in his father's house. Sidhartha was still protected from the trials of life. Yashodhara bore a son, and Sidhartha believed that he was happy.

Then, during one of his few excursions from the protection of his father's palace, Sidhartha saw three things which opened the harsh realities of life to him. He saw an old man, suffering from the frailties of age. He saw a sick man, suffering from disease. He also saw a dead man, which shocked him greatly. He finally realized that the infirmities of old age, and the pain of sickness and death caused suffering that he had never experienced. This revelation caused him to begin a search for truth that drastically changed his life, and, eventually, the lives of millions.

At the age of twenty-nine he left his home, his wife, his son, and his father. He gave up his claim to the succession of his father's throne and left the palace. He studied Yogic meditation with two Brahman hermits and achieved high cognitive states in both trance and meditation, but his desire for absolute truth was not satisfied.

For the next six years, Sidhartha placed his body under severe asceticism, which included extreme fasting and suspension of breathing. These practices almost killed him, but they did not satisfy his search for truth.

He finally ended his acetic lifestyle and began to eat. Sidhartha decided to meditate until the absolute truth would lie clearly in front of him. He meditated under a Bodhi tree where he sat facing east.

At the age of thirty-five, on the night of the full moon, Sidhartha reached enlightenment and became an "enlightened one"--a Buddha (c. 528 BC) He had at last discovered the truth he had sought, and he immediately shared it with five ascetics who had practiced near him.

After a few weeks of rest, he decided to teach the way to enlightenment to others and went to Deer Garden where he held his first sermon, " The turning wheel of Dharma." Sidhartha felt a strong call to teach others even though he could never teach the content of enlightenment, only the way of enlightenment. Buddha called his teachings "the middle way", because it was in the middle between asceticism and indulgence.

For the next forty-five years he taught as the Buddha or "Shakyamuni" (sage of the shakaya"). He also established a community of monks called sanga.

The Buddha died after forty-five years of teaching at the age of eighty.

Bimbisara- The Magadhan Ruler of Sisunga Dynasty

The first important Magadhan king who emerges into the limelight was Bimbisara (544-491 BC) of the Sisunga dynasty. He was an extremely polished diplomat and crafty statesman.

While the earlier rulers had brought Magadha out of clear and present danger, it was Bimbisara who consolidated and increased that power and really gave it the identity of a kingdom.

Through some clever marital and martial policies he pushed the frontiers of Magadha over, according to a source, eighty thousand villages. Bimbisara was a contemporary of the Buddha and met him twice, thanks to his wife Khema's reverence for the teacher. We learn that when he met him the second time, in Rajgriha (which is an important Buddhist pilgrimage today), Bimbisara converted to Buddhism.

Assasination of Bimbisara

Apparently Bimbisara was assasinated by his impatient son Ajatsatru, who was a good friend of the Buddha's cousin Devadutta. This Devadutta, not to be judged by his cousin's credentials, was very much a blot on his family name and talked Ajatsatru into killing his father in the first place.

However, there is evidence that his crime weighed on Ajatsatru's mind, and in the end he confessed his crime to the Buddha before converting to Buddhism. Apart from this, Ajatsatru was very much his father's son and continued his imperialist policies. One particularly bitter, acrimonious and prolonged rivalry went on between him and the Lichchavi dynasty that ruled Vaishali (in Bihar), which he eventually managed to conquer.

Ajatsatru was obviously a colorful character and a man of sentiment. There are tales of his passionate affair with the chief courtesan of Vaishali, called Amrapali. Then, when the Buddha attained parinirvana (nirvana from all births and bonds), Ajatsatru insisted upon a part of his relics be buried in a stupa (shrine) that he got erected in Rajgriha. He said, "The lord was a kshatriya (the warrior caste of the Varna system), so am I. Therefore I am worthy of a share of his relics upon which I will erect a stupa."

The Fading Glory of Sisunga Dynasty

The Sisunga dynasty faded fast after Ajatsatru; having produced two rulers with force enough for twenty, the dynasty bowed out. The last recorded ruler of the family was Kakavarna who was put to death by Mahapadmananda, of the Nanda dynasty which followed the Sisungas.

The Nandas could never be popular rulers despite their airs of magnificence and immense wealth (which they amassed by huge taxation). They were of lowborn sudra stock and hence had the odds stacked against them right from the start. By now the kings had become the more familiar despots and were becoming increasingly unapproachable.
The Nandas, though very powerful with a huge standing army and a grand court, were apparently a very vain lot. Indeed, traditional sources give us a very unflattering picture of the kings of this family. Much of this can be discounted – the Nandas were sudras to start with (which queered them with the Aryan Brahmins who were writing one half of these sources) and never bothered to associate with the Buddhists and Jains (who were writing the other half).

The Nanda who unwittingly became the most famous of the entire dynasty was Dhanananda. He started his own downfall by insulting a certain unsightly looking Brahmin, who unfortunately for Dhanananda, turned out to have surprising vision, intellect and Machiavellian cunning.

Chanakya - The Man With Master Mind

This Brahmin was called Chanakya. This was time (around 326BC) when Alexander came visiting India's northwest borders along Taxila where the king, called Ambhi, laid out the red carpet for him. There was an active concern among all except the king Dhanananda himself that Alexander would come all the way to Magadha. The first thing that Chanakya tried to achieve was to raise a confederacy against the foreign invader. Though this attempt, to a large extent failed, what it did manage was to bring Chanakya into political limelight of the day. He made many friends in high places, which set him off on a bigger goal – to overthrow the Nandas.

One of the main reasons the confederacy against Alexander never got going was that Magadha, as the most powerful kingdom and the obvious leader for the rest to follow, simply refused to fall in. Dhanananda apparently not only flatly refused to spend good cash on a mad project like this, but also managed to offend Chanakya so thoroughly by his insolent behavior that the Brahmin went away convinced that the king deserved to be overthrown. It was a good thing that Chanakya's concerns were in vain; Alexander never did come all the way to Magadha; in fact, he didn't even get close. Long before that summer set in and his armies started grumbling, while he himself fell ill (this illness would eventually be the end of the great king in 323BC, at a tragically early age of 32). So the Greek armies turned around after leaving Seleucus Nikator as Alexander's general in the region.

The Greeks established a colony along the border who eventually mingled with the local populace, thus forming a new stock of people. This meant not only political, but also cultural and social exchange with the Greek which influenced Indian warfare, painting and sculpture (a whole school of art called Gandhara School of art come up of the amalgam), trade and economy. While we, in turn, influenced their science, astronomy, art and philosophy.

In these exciting times, Chanakya was going about with a single-minded focus to find a replacement for Dhananada. This, he found in young Chandragupta Maurya (324-298BC).

Conquest of Alexander in India [327 BC]

The throne of Macedon in south-east Europe has been occupied by Alexander. Having defeated the last of the Persian rulers and conquered the Acharmenian empire, Alexander has vowed to conquer the Indian satraps. His army has crossed the Hindukush mountains and is strengthening its position near Kabul. He has captured the fortresses of Massaga and Aornos. Alexander is from a far off land called Greece. This is reportedly beyond the horizon.

The astonishing fact about this he is just 21 years old! It's known from well-placed sources that he is planning to launch a major attack on the Pauravan king across the Jhelum river. The Pauravan king is planning a massive counter attack.

India, 326 BC: Alexander moves through the dense jungles of Ohind. Then, having crossed the Indus river and secured the help of the Ambhi, king of Taxila, Alexander marches on to the Jhelum. The Pauravan king with an army of 30,000 soldiers, horses and elephants provided fierce resistance but was eventually defeated.

When Alexander asked the Pauravan king to bow, the latter answered, "Act like a King". Impressed by the Pauravan king's efforts he has given him back his kingdom. Alexander has moved further. He concentrated on capturing the Chenab and Ravi plains upto Beas. This strategy of Alexander is typical of the great Greek rulers. Having conquered several tribes and satraps, Alexander has received many presents including brocades, gems, tigers, etc. He wanted to move further towards the Ganges valley, but has been stopped by his tired troops.

So with a heavy heart, Alexander has retraced his steps to the Jhelum. He has been severally wounded while storming one of the citadels of the powerful tribe of Malavas. Through the desserts of Baluchistan and with terrible sufferings, he has reached Babylon. And in 323 BC , not very long after his return to Babylon, Alexander dies.

"The hold of the great king [Alexander] on the Indian frontier slackened considerably in the fourth century BC. The arduous campaigns of Alexander restored the fallen fabric of imperialism and laid the foundation of a closer contact between India and the Hellenic world. The Macedonian empire in the Indus valley no doubt perished within a short time. But the Macedonian had welded the political atoms into one unit and thus paved the way for the permanent union under the Mauryas."

The Mauryan Dynasty (The first Indian Empire)

Chandragupta Maurya [322-298 BC]

Chandragupta, with the help Chanakya (Kautilya), who is also known as the Indian Machiavelli, destroyed the Nanda rulers of Magadha and established the Mauryan empire. It is said that Chanakya met Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest, after being insulted by the Nanda king.

Alexander's invasion prompted Indians to develop a centralised state. Chandragupta declared war and defeated Selucus Nicator, the Macedonian ruler of the Northwestern territories captured by Alexander the Great.
Along with the the astute advice of Chanakya, Chandragupta also seized Punjab, Kabul, Khandahar, Gandhara and Persia from Seluces. Seluces' daughter was married to Chandragupta.

"Selucus failed and had to conclude a treaty with Chandragupta by which he surrendered a large territory including, in the opinion of certain writers, the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan), in return for 500 elephants. The treaty was probably cemented by a marriage contract. A Greek envoy was accredited to the Court of Pataliputra."

- An Advanced History of India
by RC Majumdar, HC Raychaudhri & Kalinkar Datta

The most important result of this treaty was that Chandragupta's fame spread far and wide and his empire was recognised as a great power in the western countries. The kings of Egypt and Syria sent ambassadors to the Mauryan Court.

Chandragupta Maurya's origins were shrouded in mystery. Having been brought up by peacock tamers, he could be of low caste birth. According to other sources, Chandragupta Maurya was the son of a Nanda prince and a dasi called Mura. It is also possible that Chandragupta was of the Maurya tribe of Kshatriyas.

Maurya empire was the first really large and powerful centralised state in India. It was very well governed, with tempered autocracy at the top and democracy at the city and village levels. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra, had expressed his admiration for the efficient administration of the empire. His book 'Indica' is a collection of comments of other Roman & Greek travelers, and Megasthenes wrote about the prosperity of the Mauryan cities.

He further reported that agriculture was healthy, water abundant and mineral wealth was in plenty. Speaking of the general prosperity, Megasthenes wrote, "the Indians, dressed in bright and rich colors, they liberally used ornaments and gems." He also spoke of the division of society according to occupation and the large number of religious sects and foreigners in the empire.

Chandragupta Maurya's son Bindusara became the new Mauryan Emperor by inheriting an empire including the Hindukush, Narmada, Vindhyas, Mysore, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Baluchistan & Afghanistan.

Mauryan Empire - Bindusara [298 BC]

After ruling for about twenty five years, Chandragupta left his throne to his son Bindusara and became a Jain ascetic. Bindusara inherited an empire including the Hindukush, Narmada, Vindhyas, Mysore, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Baluchistan & Afghanistan. He was called Amitraghata which means "slayer of foes" by Greek writers.

Bindusara extended his empire further as far as south Mysore. He conquered sixteen states and extended the empire from sea to sea. The empire included the whole of India except the region of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and the Dravidian kingdoms of the south. The Dravidians kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were very friendly with the Mauryan empire and so the king felt no need to conquer them. However, Kalinga was not friendly with the Mauryans and so a war was fought between the people of Kalinga and Mauryans led by Bindusara's son Ashoka.

Administration during Bindusara's Reign

Bindusara maintained good relations with Selucus Nicator and the emperors regularly exchanged ambassadors and presents. He also maintained the friendly relations with the Hellenic West established by his father. Ambassadors from Syria and Egypt lived at Bindusara's court. He preferred the Ajivika philosophy rather than Jainism.

Mauryan Empire - Ashoka [273 BC]

Ashoka, the most trusted son of Bindusara and the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, was a brave soldier. He was the most famous of the Mauryan kings and was one of the greatest rulers of India. During his father's reign, he was the governor of Ujjain and Taxila. Having sidelined all claims to the throne from his brothers, Ashoka was coronated as an emperor. Ashoka extended the Maurya Empire to the whole of India except the deep south and the south-east, reaching out even into Central Asia.

The Kalinga War [261 BC]

Ashoka succeeded in conquering Kalinga after a bloody war in which 100,000 men were killed, 150,000 injured and thousands were captured and retained as slaves. The sight of the slaughter involved in his conquest deeply distressed Ashoka and deeply affected his mind. This was a turning point in his life. He renounced war and sought peace in Buddha's preachings of love and ahimsa (non-violence). The war also developed in him a hatred for all kinds of violence. So he gave up hunting and slaughtering of animals. He became a strict vegetarian.

Under his reign Buddhism spread to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Central Asia, Burma. For propagation of Buddhism, he started inscribing edicts on rocks and pillars at places where people could easily read them. These pillars and rocks are still found in India, spreading their message of love and peace for the last two thousand years. To his ideas he gave the name Dharma. Ashoka died in 232 BC. The capital of Ashoka pillar at Sarnath is adopted by India as its national emblem. The "Dharma Chakra" on the Ashoka Pillar adorns our National Flag.

Fall of Mauryas

Emperor Ashoka ruled for 37 years. He died in 232 BC. During his reign he gave up war and preached peace in the kingdom. Seven kings (some say 10) followed Ashoka within a period of 50 years. The Mauryan empire was breaking up. There are different opinions about the fall of the kingdom. Some say that since the later part of Ashoka's reign was devoid of wars, the military were inactive and this weakened them. Others say after Ashoka there were no strong kings to rule such a vast empire.

Sungas Dynasty

The last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was Brithadratha. He was killed by his own commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 BC.

With the fall of Mauryas, India lost its political unity. Pushyamitra Sunga became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring territories. The north-western regions comprising Rajputana, Malwa and Punjab passed into the hands of the foreign rulers. The kingdom of Pushyamitra was extended upto Narmada in the south, and controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab in the north-western regions.

Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187-151 BC). He was succeeded by son Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by India's greatest playwright, Kalidasa. Agnimitra used to hold his court in the city of Vidisa, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. The power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Sunga kings.

Kanva Dynasty (75BC - 30BC)

The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror.

The Satvahana Dynasty

After the decline of the Mauryan empire the Satvahanas established their kingdom in the Deccan. They were also known as Andhras. They first rose to power in present Maharashtra on the banks of the Godavari. The founder of the Satvahanas was Simuka. But the man who raised it to eminence was Satakarni I. The Satvahana dynasty began its rule in about 40 or 30 BC, and continued until the 3rd century AD.

Satakarni I allied with powerful Marathi chieftain and signalled his accession to power by performing ashvamedhas (horse-sacrifice). After his death, the Satvahana power seemed to have been submerged beneath a wave of Scythian invasion.

Reign of Gautamiputra (AD 80-104)

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the famous king during the Satvahana dynasty. He defeated the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas (Parithans). His empire extended upto Banavasi in the south, and included Maharashtra, Konkan, Saurashtra, Malwa, west Rajasthan and Vidharbha. His son, Vasishtiputra, ruled at Paithan on the banks of Godavari.

Two other cities, Vaijayanti (in North Kanara) and Amravati (in the Guntur district), attained eminence during the Satvahana period. Kings succeeding Gautamiputra lost many of their territories. But the power of Satvahanas revived under Sri Yajna Satakarni, who was the last great king. After him, the empire began to decline.

Some scholars say the there were 19 kings of this dynasty which ruled for 300 years, while others say there were 30 kings who ruled for 456 years. The dynasty came to an end about the middle of the third century AD. (after AD 220). Their empire broke up into small states ruled by the Abhiras, Chutus, Ikshvakus, Pallavas.

Establishment of Kushans (AD 50)

The Kushans were a branch of the nomadic Yeuhchi tribe of China. The Yeuhchi tribe was in conflict with another tribe and so was forced to leave China. They came to Central Asia and then spread to Bactria, Paritha and Afghanistan. Gradually they were divided into five branches. One of these branches -- Kouel Chougang (Kushans) -- was superior to all. The Kushans under Kujala attacked the Parithans, took possessions of Ki-pin and Kabul and became the complete master of the Indian borderland.

Kujala became the first king of the Kushans and was known as Kadphises I. He was a great warrior. He was succeeded by his son Wima Kadphises known as Kadphises II. He conquered the north-western region of India. He defeated Saka Satraps in the north-west. Punjab and Sind were his dominions.

Reign of Kanishka (AD 120)

Kanishka was the most famous of the Kushan kings. It is not known how he became the king but he ascended the throne in AD 120. When Kanishka ascended the throne, his empire consisted of Afghanistan, Sind, Punjab and portions of the former Parithan and Bactrian kingdoms. His empire extended from the north-west and Kashmir, over most of the Gangetic valley. He annexed three provinces of the Chinese empire, namely, Tashkand, Khotan and Yarkhand. He was the only king who ruled over these territories. He had two capitals at Purushpura (Peshawar now in Pakistan) and at Mathura in west Uttar Pradesh. Kanishka proved that he was a great conqueror.

Successors of Kanishka

Kanishka's immediate successor was Vashiska who was then succeeded by Huvishka. Mathura became the centre of Kushans. Many monuments were erected during Huvishka's reign. The last great king of Kushans was Vasudev I. The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanians of Persia in the north-west and the Guptas in the north. The rule of Kushans ended almost at the same time as that of the Satavahans in the south.

Buddhism during the Kushans

Kanishka embraced Buddhism towards the middle of his reign. He is said to have been Zoroastrian before he became Buddhist. He spent his resources in spreading Buddhism. Mahayana was the new form of Buddhism that was followed during this period where the Buddha was worshipped as God. Old monastries were repaired and many new ones were built.

Art, Science and Literature

Kanishka was a great patron of art and literature. A new form of art Gandhara Art was developed. Beautiful images of Buddha were developed in a Greek-Roman style. These images were carved in a realistic way, with graceful bodies and curly hair.

Kanishka's court was adorned by many scholars like Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna and Charaka. Ashvaghosha was a great poet and a master of music. He wrote Buddhacharita, a biography of the Buddha. Charak was a great physician and he wrote a book Charak Samhita, which is based on the Ayurvedic system of medicine.

Gupta Dynasty

After the Kushans, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The information about Guptas is known from the archaeological remains, inscriptions and coins. Early in the beginning of the fourth century, a chief called Sri Gupta ruled a small kingdom in Magadha. He was then succeeded by his son Ghatokacha. They were mostly minor rulers in east Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Reign of Chandragupta I (AD 320-335)

The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatokacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Lichhavis. This marriage was a turning point to Chandragupta I. He got Patliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Patliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Lichhavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.

An important act of Chandragupta I was the holding of an assembly of councillors and members of the royal family at which Prince Samudragupta was formally nominated as the successor of the Gupta empire.

Harishena's Inscription

Samudragupta was the son of Chandragupta I and though the exact date of his birth is not known, it seems he must have ascended the throne after the death of his father Chandragupta I in AD 335. The information about his reign is on an inscription engraved on a pillar at Allahabad. The text of this inscription was recorded by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta. Part of the inscription was lost in the course of time. Harishena's inscription tells us about Samudragupta's various conquests and small kingdoms existing at that time. Samudragupta also left an extensive coinage which supports the information of the inscription.

Samudragupta's Conquest

Samudragupta was a great warrior. His passion of conquest was so great that he did not rest till he captured almost whole of India. It seems Samudragupta first waged wars against the neighbouring kingdoms of Shichchhatra (Rohilkhand) and Padmavati (in Central India), then ruled by Achyuta and Nagasena. Then he incorporated in the Gupta empire the kingdom of Kota kings by defeating him. He also waged wars against tribal states like those of Malvas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras. The descendants of Kushanas, many chieftains of Sakas, the Ceylonese hastened to propitiate the great Gupta by offering homage and tribute or presents.
Samudragupta's daring adventure was his military expedition to the south along the coast of the Bay of Bengal. He defeated Mahendra of Khosla, Mantaraja of Kurala, Mahendragiri of Pithapuram, Svamidatta of Kottura, Damana of Erandapalla, Vishnugupta - the Pallava king of Kanchi, Kubera of Devarashtrain the Vizagapatam district and Dhananjaya of Kushthalapur possible in North Arcot. Samudragupta did not go beyond the river Krishna.

Towards the west, Samudragupta subdued Palaghat, Maharashtra and Khandesh. He did not annex any part of the Deccan to his empire as he knew that it would be difficult to control those territories situated so far from Patliputra.

Samudragupta's territories extended from the Himalayas in the north to the river Narbada in the south and from the Brahamaputra river in the east to the Yamuna river in the west. Then there were other kingdoms like Assam, Nepal, Devaka, Kartipura.

Samudragupta's Reign

Samudragupta is considered as one of the greatest rulers in Indian history. He is also compared to Alexander or Napoleon as a conqueror. He performed Ashwamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice) after defeating nine kings in the north and twelve kings in the south to underline the importance of his conquest of almost the whole of India. He also assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and Chakravartin (Universal Monarch).
Samudragupta was not a only a great warrior but also a great patron of art and literature. He gathered around himself a galaxy of poets and scholars, the most prominent ones being Harishena, Vasubandhu and Asanga. He himself was a great poet and musician. In one of his coins, he is shown playing the Veena. Samudragupta was a staunch believer of Hinduism and was a worshiper of Lord Vishnu. He also respected other religions like Buddhism and also allowed the Buddhist king of Ceylon to build a monastery at Bodh-Gaya.

Empire of Chandragupta II [AD 380-413]

Chandragupta succeeded his father Samudragupta. He got the title of Vikramaditya (son of power), so he is also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Chandragupta II proved to be of the same military mettle of his father and brought large amounts of territory in Western India under the Gupta empire.

From the inscription of the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of Chandragupta II situated in Delhi, it is learnt that he waged successful wars against several chiefs of Vanga (Bengal). However Chandragupta II's greatest achievement was the victory over the Saka Satraps of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra.

Chandragupta's Biggest Achievement

Chandragupta marched against the Saka Satraps about AD 389. After six years of courageous fighting, he killed the Sakas chieftains. He killed Rudrasena III, a Saka king of West India. He annexed all the three kingdoms of Satraps under Gupta empire and made Ujjain a second capital, and called himself Vikramaditya -- a combination of words valour and sun. Chandragupta's empire had both the Arabian Sea coast and that of the Bay of Bengal under its control. He also captured Bactria and concluded marital alliances with the Nagas, Vakatakas and Kadamba dynasties.
Like his grandfather, Chandragupta married the Lichhavi princess Kumaradevi. He gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage to Rudrasena II, the Venkata king of Central India. Rudrasena had helped him in his campaign against the Saka Satraps.

Administrations and Coins

The account of administration of Chandragupta's reign is known from the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hein who came to India during that period. The administration was very well organised with very light taxes. The empire was divided into many provinces which were ruled by independent governors. The provinces were further divided into districts. Land revenue was the main source of income of the state and was normally one-sixth of the produce of the land.
The emperor also issued a host of gold, silver and copper coins to celebrate his reign. His coins featured Vishnu and his garuda, as well as images of himself killing a lion, among others. Experts say that Chandragupta II's coin are of a finer quality than had been seen thus far.

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumargupta who was also a great ruler.

Reign of Kumaragupta [AD 415-455]
Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta. Like his father, Kumaragupta was also a very great and able ruler. He was able to keep the vast empire, which extended from North Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Nerbudda, intact. He ruled efficiently for nearly forty years. However, the last days of his reign were not good. The Gupta empire was threatened by the invasions of Pushyamitras. The Pushyamitras were a tribe of foreigners who were settled in Central India. However, Kumaragupta was successful in defeating the invaders and performed Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice) to celebrate his victory. He issued new coins with images of Lord Kartikeya.

Skandagupta becomes the King

Kumaragupta died in AD 455 and was succeeded by his son Skandagupta. During his reign, the invasions of the Huns became more frequent. Skandagupta repelled their early invasions and recovered most of the imperial provinces.

But the continuous attack of the Huns weakened the Gupta empire. Skandagupta died in AD 467. After his death, the Gupta empire began to decline.

Decline of the Gupta Empire

Inscriptions prove that the Gupta sovereignty was acknowledged in the Jabbalpur region in the Nebudda valley as late as AD 528, and in North Bengal till AD 543-544. Kumaragupta is known to have been ruling in AD 473-474, Buddhagupta from AD 476-495, Vainyagupta in AD 508 and Bhanugupta in AD 510-511. The Gupta empire became to disintegrate and till the middle of the sixth century AD, they had merely became petty chiefs.

Harsha Vardhana -- The Ruler of Vardhana Dynasty

The final important ruler of Ancient Indian history was Harsha Vardhana (606-646AD), who ruled not from Magadha but Thanesar (in modern Haryana area) of the Vardhana dynasty. He was a Buddhist and convened many Buddhist assemblies. The second Chinese traveller to come to India, Huien Tsang, arrived during his reign.
By all accounts Harsha was all the usual things that one associates with a good king. However, lots of petty dynasties like the Maukharis and the Vakatakas had started springing up all over the place, and the confusion which is generally associated with the absence of a strong central dynasty was rife.

The south presented a medley of dynasties around the time of Harsha Vardhana. There were the Pandyas (in regions of Mudurai, Travancore and Tinnevelly), the Chalukyas (in present Maharashtra region) and Pallavas (in modern Tamil Nadu region), who had this terrific battle of supremacy going constantly. Pulakesan II (610-642AD) was the ablest of the Chalukyan kings and for a time managed to keep the Chalukyan flag flying above the others. But strictly for a time being.

The Chalukyas gained Importance

The Chalukyas rose to power in the Deccan from the fifth to eighth century and again from the tenth to twelfth century. They ruled over the area between the Vindhyan mountain and the river Krishna. The Chalukyas were sworn enemies of the Pallavas and rose to power in Karnataka. The first great ruler of the Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin I. He founded Vatapi (modern Badami in Bijapur district) and made it his capital. He is said to have performed Ashwamedha Yagna (horse sacrifice). The kingdom was further extended by his sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including Mauryans of the Konkans.

Reign of Pulakesin II

Pulakesin II was the son of Kirtivarman. He was the the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. He ruled for almost 34 years. In this long reign, he consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan from the banks of the Nerbudda to the reign beyond the Kaveri. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against Harshvardhan in 620. In 641, the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, visited the kingdom and said that the king was served by his nobles with perfect loyalty.
However the last days of the king were not happy. Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallav king Narasimhavarman in 642. His capital Vatapi was completely destroyed.

End of Chalukya Dynasty

Pulakestin was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya who was also as great a ruler as his father. He renewed the struggle against his southern enemies. He recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great extent. Even his great grandson Vikramaditya II was also a great warrior. He actually entered the Pallava capital. In 753, Vikramaditya and his son were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra, that of Rashtrakutas.

A Short History of Metals

2010-07-28T00:36:00.001-07:00

Process Metallurgy is one of the oldest applied sciences. Its history can be traced back to 6000 BC. Admittedly, its form at that time was rudimentary, but, to gain a perspective in Process Metallurgy, it is worthwhile to spend a little time studying the initiation of mankind's association with metals. Currently there are 86 known metals. Before the 19th century only 24 of these metals had been discovered and, of these 24 metals, 12 were discovered in the 18th century. Therefore, from the discovery of the first metals - gold and copper until the end of the 17th century, some 7700 years, only 12 metals were known. Four of these metals, arsenic, antimony , zinc and bismuth , were discovered in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, while platinum was discovered in the 16th century. The other seven metals, known as the Metals of Antiquity, were the metals upon which civilisation was based. These seven metals were:

(1) Gold (ca) 6000BC

(2) Copper,(ca) 4200BC

(3) Silver,(ca) 4000BC

(4) Lead, (ca) 3500BC

(5) Tin, (ca) 1750BC

(6) Iron,smelted, (ca) 1500BC

(7) Mercury, (ca) 750BC

These metals were known to the Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Greeks and the Romans. Of the seven metals, five can be found in their native states, e.g., gold, silver, copper, iron (from meteors) and mercury. However, the occurrence of these metals was not abundant and the first two metals to be used widely were gold and copper. And, of course, the history of metals is closely linked to that of coins and gemstones

Gold

Gold articles are found extensively in antiquity mainly as jewelry e.g. Bracelets, rings etc. Early gold artifacts are rarely pure and most contain significant silver contents. This led to the ancients naming another metal - electrum, which was an alloy of gold and silver, pale yellow and similar in color to amber. Therefore, early gold varied from pure through electrum to white gold. The symbol for gold is Au from the latin aurum meaning shining dawn.
Stone age man learned to fashion gold into jewelry and ornaments, learning that it could be formed into sheets and wires easily. However, its malleability, which allows it to be formed into very thin sheet (0.000005 inches), ensures that it has no utilitarian value and early uses were only decorative. As gold is a noble metal, being virtually noncorrosive and tarnish free, it served this purpose admirably.

Gold is widely dispersed through the earth's crust and is found in two types of deposits: lode deposits, which are found in solid rock and are mined using conventional mining techniques, and placer deposits which are gravelly deposits found in stream beds and are the products of eroding lode deposits. Since gold is found uncombined in nature, early goldsmiths would collect small nuggets of gold from stream beds etc., and then weld them together by hammering.

Thus we find the first problem in process metallurgy: The metal deposit must be identified. In the case of the first metals color was the most important factor as it allowed the metal to be recognized in surrounding rock, stones, gravel and dirt (gangue) and separated. Clearly, after recognition, separation is next problem followed by concentration. These three steps are very important and the economics of these steps usually define whether it is viable to produce the metal from a set deposit. In the early days all three steps were carried out simultaneously. Gold is widely dispersed throughout the earths crust (0.005 ppm) at a very small level, therefore, it is very important to find naturally occurring concentrations. The scarcity of gold and its value, due to mankinds fascination with its color, have lead to gold being the one of the more important metals in daily life.

Copper

The use of copper in antiquity is of more significance than gold as the first tools, implements and weapons were made from copper. From 4,000 to 6,000 BC was the Chalcolithic period which was when copper came into common use. The symbol for copper is Cu and comes from the latin cuprum meaning from the island of Cyprus. Initially copper was chipped into small pieces from the main mass. The small pieces were hammered and ground in a manner similar to the techniques used for bones and stones. However, when copper was hammered it became brittle and would easily break. The solution to this problem was to anneal the copper. This discovery was probably made when pieces were dropped in camp fires and then hammered. By 5,000 BC copper sheet was being made.

By 3600 BC the first copper smelted artifacts were found in the Nile valley and copper rings, bracelets, chisels were found. By 3000 BC weapons, tools etc. were widely found. Tools and weapons of utilitarian value were now within society, however, only kings and royalty had such tools; it would take another 500 years before they reached the peasants.

Malachite, a green friable stone, was the source of copper in the early smelters. Originally it was thought that the smelting of copper was by chance dropping of malachite into campfires. However, campfire temperatures are normally in the region of 600-650 C, whereas, 700-800 C is necessary for reduction. It is more probable that early copper smelting was discovered by ancient potters whose clay firing furnaces could reach temperatures of 1100-1200 C. If Malachite was added to these furnaces copper nodules would easily be found. Although the first smelted copper was found in the Nile valley, it is thought that this copper was brought to Egypt by the Gerzeans and copper smelting was produced first in Western Asia between 4000 and 4300 BC.

Although copper can be found free in nature the most important sources are the minerals cuprite, malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite and bornite. Copper is reddish colored, malleable, ductile and a good conductor of heat and electricity. Approximately 90% 0f the worlds primary copper originates in sulfide ores.

Lead

Lead is not found free in nature but Galena (lead sulfide) was used as an eye paint by the ancient Egyptians. Galena has a very metallic looking appearance and was, therefore, likely to attract the attention of early metalworkers. The production of metallic lead from its ore is relatively easy and could have been produced by reduction of Galena in a camp fire. The melting point of lead is 327 C, therefore, it would easily flow to the lowest point in the fireplace and collect. At first lead was not used widely because it was too ductile and the first uses of lead were around 3500 B.C.. Lead's use as a container and conduit was important and lead pipes bearing the insignia of Roman emperors can still be found. Lead is highly malleable, ductile and noncorrosive making it an excellent piping material. Its symbol is Pb from the latin plumbum.

The ability of lead to flow and collect at the bottom of the campfire is an important concept in process metallurgy as reduction reactions to be useful must cause a phase separation between the metal and the gangue. Also, the phase separation should also enable the metal to be cast into a desired shape once concentrated.

Silver

Although silver was found freely in nature, its occurrence was rare. Silver is the most chemically active of the noble metals, is harder than gold but softer than copper. It ranks second in ductility and malleability to gold. It is normally stable in pure air and water but tarnishes when exposed to ozone, hydrogen sulfide or sulfur. Due to its softness, pure silver was used for ornaments, jewelry and as a measure of wealth. In a manner similar to gold, native silver can easily be formed. Silver's symbol is Ag from the latin argentum.

Galena always contains a small amount of silver and it was found that if the lead was oxidized into a powdery ash a droplet of silver was left behind. Another development in this process was the discovery that if bone ash was added to the lead oxide, the lead oxide would be adsorbed and a large amount of material could be processed. By 2500 BC the cupellation process was the normal mode of silver manufacture.

Tin

Smelted copper was rarely pure, in fact, it is clear that by 2500 BC the Sumerians had recognized that if different ores were blended together in the smelting process, a different type of copper, which flowed more easily, was stronger after forming and was easy to cast, could be made. An axe head from 2500 BC revealed that it contained 11% tin and 89% copper. This was of course the discovery of @b(Bronze). However, by 2000 BC copper implements contained very little tin as local reserves of tin had been exhausted. The Sumerians were forced to travel to find the necessary ores. Bronze was a much more useful alloy than copper as farm implements and weapons could be made from it, however, it needed the discovery of tin to become the alloy of choice.

Native Tin is not found in nature. The first tin artifacts date back to 2000 B.C., however, it was not until 1800 B.C. that tin smelting became common in western Asia. Tin was reduced by charcoal and at first was thought to be a form of lead. The Romans referred to both tin and lead as plumbum where lead was plumbum nigrum and tin was plumbum candidum. Tin was rarely used on its own and was most commonly alloyed to copper to form bronze. The most common form of tin ore is the oxide casserite. By 1400 BC. bronze was the predominant metal alloy. Tin's symbol is Sn from the stannum.

Tin is highly malleable and ductile and has two allotropic forms which lead to tin initially having its own disease (tin pest or blight) which was actually formation of alpha-tin below 13 C. As alpha-tin is a highly friable cubic structure with a greater specific volume than beta-tin, during the phase change, which is kinetically limited, nodules of alpha-tin become visible on the surface of beta-tin giving rise to early belief of sickness and the first true doctors of metallurgy. Tin is highly crystalline and during deformation is subject to mechanical twinning and an audible tin cry. Tin is also quite resistant to corrosion.

Tin is found as vein tin or stream tin. The tin ore is stannic oxide and is generally found with quartz, feldspar or mica. The ore is a hard , heavy and inert substance and is generally found as outcroppings as softer impurities are washed away.

Mercury
Mercury was also known to the ancients and has been found in tombs dating back to 1500 and 1600 BC. Pliny, the Roman chronicler, outlined purification techniques by squeezing it through leather and also noted that it was poisonous. Mercury, also known as quicksilver, is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature. Although it can be found in its native state, it is more commonly found in such ores as calomel, livingstonite, corderite and its sulfide cinnabar. Extraction is most simply carried out by distillation as mercury compounds decompose at moderate temperatures and volatilize.

Mercury was widely used because of its ability to dissolve silver and gold (amalgamation) and was the basis of many plating technologies. There is also indications that it was prized and perhaps worshipped by the Egyptians. In 315 B.C., Dioscorides mentions recovery of quicksilver (which he called hydrargyros, liquid silver) by distillation, stating " An iron bowl containing cinnabar is put into an earthenware container and sealed with clay. It is then set on a fire and the soot which sticks to the cover is quicksilver". Methods changed little until the 18th century. Mercury's symbol is Hg from hydragyrum, liquid silver.

Iron

Iron was available to the ancients in small amounts from meteors. This native iron is easily distinguishable because it contains 6-8% nickel. There is some indication that man-made iron was available as early as 2500 B.C., however, ironmaking did not become an everyday process until 1200 BC. Hematite, an oxide of iron, was widely used by the ancients for beads and ornaments. It is also readily reduced by carbon. However, if reduced at temperatures below 700-800 C it is not suitable for forging and must be produced at temperatures above 1100 C. Wrought iron was the first form of iron known to man. The product of reaction was a spongy mass of iron intermixed with slag. This was then reheated and hammered to expel the slag and then forged into the desired shape. In the early days iron was 5 times more expensive then gold and its first uses were as ornaments.
Iron weapons revolutionized warfare and iron implements did the same for farming. Iron and steel was the building block for civilization. Interestingly, an iron pillar dating to 400 A.D., remains standing today in Delhi, India. Corrosion to the pillar has been minimal a skill lost to current ironworkers. Iron is rarely found in its native state the only known sources being Greenland where the iron occurs as nodules in basalt that erupted through beds of coal and two very rare nickel-iron alloys. Iron's symbol is Fe from the latin ferrum.

These seven metals: gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, mercury and iron, and the alloys bronze and electrum were the starting point of metallurgy and even in this simple, historic account we find some of the basic problems of process metallurgy. The problems are:

The ores must be found, separated and sized before use.

The ores must be reacted under a controlled temperature and gas atmosphere.

The liquid metal must be collected and cast into a desired shape.

The metal must be worked to achieve desired final properties and shape.

The Growth of Metallurgy

After the seven metals of antiquity: gold, silver, copper, mercury, tin , iron and lead, the next metal to be discovered was Arsenic in the 13th century by Albertus Magnus. Arsenicus (arsenious oxide) when heated with twice its weight of soap became metallic. By 1641 arsenious oxide was being reduced by charcoal. Arsenic is steel gray, very brittle and crystalline; it tarnishes in air and when heated rapidly forms arsenious oxide with the odor of garlic. Arsenic compounds are poisonous. The symbol As is taken from the latin arsenicum. Arsenic was used in bronzing and improving the sphericity of shot. The most common mineral is Mispickel or Arsenopyrite (FeSAs) from which arsenic sublimes upon heating.
The next metal to be isolated was antimony. Stibium or antimony sulphide was roasted in an iron pot to form antimony. Agricola reported this technique in 1560. Antimony whose name comes from the Greek "anti plus monos"- a metal not found alone, has as its symbol Sb from the latin stibium. It is an extremely brittle flaky metal. Antimony and its compounds are highly toxic. Initial uses were as an alloy for lead as it increased hardness. Stibnite is the most common ore. It was commonly roasted to form the oxide and reduced by carbon.

By 1595,bismuth was produced by reduction of the oxide with carbon , however, it was not until 1753 when bismuth was classified as an element. Zinc was known to the Chinese in 1400; however , it was not until 1738 , when William Champion patented the zinc distillation process, that zinc came into common use. Before Champion's process, zinc, which was imported from China, was known as Indian Tin or Pewter. A Chinese text from 1637 stated the method of production was to heat a mixture of calamine (zinc oxide) and charcoal in an earthenware pot . The zinc was recovered as an incrustation on the inside of the pot. In 1781 zinc was added to liquid copper to make brass. This method of brass manufacture soon became dominant.

One other metal was discovered in the 1500's in Mexico by the Spaniards. This metal was platinum. Although not 100% pure, it was the first metal to be discovered and sourced from the "New World". The property which brought this metal to the prospectors attention was its lack of reactivity with known reagents. Early use of platinum was banned because it was used as a blank for coins which were subsequently gold coated, proving that the early metallurgists understood not only density but also economics. Although, platinum was known to the western world, it was not until the 1800's that platinum became widely used.

Several other metals were isolated during the 1700's. These were Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Tellurium, Beryllium , Chromium, Uranium, Zirconium and Yttrium . Only laboratory specimens were produced and all were reduced by carbon with the exception of tungsten which became the first metal to be reduced by hydrogen.

Therefore, before 1800 there were 12 metals in common use:

Gold

Silver

Copper

Lead

Mercury

Iron

Tin

Platinum

Antimony

Bismuth

Zinc

Arsenic

Before 1805 all metals were reduced by either carbon or hydrogen , however, the majority of the metals once smelted were not pure. Refining of gold, that is the separation of silver from gold, has a very old history. During the second millennium it is clear that an amalgamation process using molten lead was used to separate the metal from crushed quartz. The lead then being cupelled to separate the gold and the silver. Purification was then carried further (but not until the first millennium) by a cementing process where a mixture of the alloy was closely mixed with common salt.The silver reacted, formed a chloride which was soluble and easily rinsed off. The cementation process was used until about 1100 A.D. when other refining processes became popular. One method used sulphur addition to the molten bullion to form silver sulfide which was removed as "black" during gentle beating. Mineral acids were developed by the alchemists. Nitric acid was used to dissolve silver in the 1200's as a purification technique. By the end of the 15th century , Stibium (antimony sulfide) was also used in the cementation process. Generally, a mixture of salt, stibium and sulphur was heated with the gold foil.

Gold plating of silver was very popular and in 1250 Bartholommeus Anglicus gave the following advice:

"And when a plate of gold shall be melded with a plate of silver, or joined there to, it needeth to beware namely of three things, of powder, of winde and of moisture: for if any hereof come between gold and silver, they may not be joined together,then one with another: and therefore it needeth to meddle these two metals together in a full cleane place and quiet and when they be joined in this manner, the joining is inseparable, so that they may not afterward be departed asunder,"

This advice is good today. Amalgamation processes were also popular. The gold was dissolved in mercury. The amalgam was coated onto the piece and then heated to drive off the mercury leaving a gold coated piece. Gold could also be removed by the reverse process (1567).

Before 1807 all metals which had been separated had been reduced by either carbon or hydrogen. The separation of other metals needed the invention of the galvanic cell. Sir Humphrey Davy used the generating pile developed by Volta and demonstrated that water could be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen . Next he tried a solution containing potash and again gained hydrogen and oxygen. Then he tried a piece of moistened potash which produced at the negative electrode something that burned brightly. His next experiment was decisive, he placed the potash on an insulated platinum dish which was connected to the negative pole of the battery. He then connected the positive pole to the upper surface of the potash and produced small metallic globules. In this manner he produced potassium and sodium.

The Swedish chemist , Berzelius, found that the metals contained in lime and baryta (barium oxide) could also be separated in this way. He used mercury as a cathode which caused the separated metals to dissolve in the mercury. After electrolysis the mercury was distilled away and Calcium and Barium were left behind. Later, Davy produced Strontium by the same technique. By allowing the manufacture of sodium and potassium Davy and Berzelius had opened the door to the reduction of many refractory materials.

In 1817 Cadmium was discovered. Stroymeyer noted that zinc carbonate had a yellowish tinge not attributable to iron. Upon reduction he thought that the alloy contained two metals. The metals were separated by fractional distillation. At 800 C, as cadmium's boiling point is lower than zinc, the cadmium distilled first.

In 1841 Charles Askin developed a method of separating cobalt and nickel when both metals are in solution. Using a quantity of bleaching powder he found that if the quantity of powder was small enough only cobalt oxide was precipitated and separated. The nickel could then be easily precipitated with lime and a source for pure cobalt and nickel was available. Pure cobalt oxide revolutionized the pottery industry as the blues were now available.

Chromium although it had been produced by reduction with carbon was the first metal to be extensively produced using another metal (zinc). Wohler in 1859 melted chromium chloride under a fused salt layer and attracted the chromium with zinc. The resulting zinc chloride dissolved in the fused salt and chromium produced.In 1828, Wohler produced beryllium by reducing beryllium chloride with potassium in a platinum crucible.

Aluminium was first produced by Christian Oersted in 1825. However it was not until 20 years later that significant quantities were produced. Wohler fused anhydrous aluminum chloride with potassium to set free aluminum. Later Ste Claire Deville in 1854 put together a production process using sodium instead of potassium.

The current from Galvanic cells were also used for electroplating. This was first practiced in the 1830's when silver was deposited on baser metals. After silver plating, copper and nickel plating was developed. In the middle of the 18th century it was found that metallic separation could be carried out by the application of galvanic electricity. The current was passed from an anode made of an impure, crude metal into a suitable electrolyte and the pure material plated out onto a resistant cathode. Impurities present in the crude cathode dropped to the bottom of the vessel and formed a sludge.

From this short review of metallurgical developments it can be seen that as the early metallurgists became more sophisticated their ability to discover and separate all the metals grew. However in all of their work it was necessary for all the basic steps to be carried out e.g. the ore had to be identified, separated from gangue, sized, concentrated and reduced in a manner which accomplished a phase separation.

Table 1: METALS DISCOVERED IN 18TH CENTURY

1735 Cobalt

1751 Nickel

1774 Manganese

1781 Molybdenum

1782 Tellurium

1783 Tungsten

1789 Uranium

1789 Zirconium

1791 Titanium

1794 Yttrium

1797 Berylium

1797 Chromium

Table 2: METALS DISCOVERED IN 19TH CENTURY

1801 Niobium

1802 Tantalum

1803 Iridium, Palladium, Rhodium

1807 Potassium, Sodium

1808 Boron, Barium, Calcium, Magnesium, Strontium

1814 Cerium

1817 Lithium, Cadmium, Selenium

1823 Silicon

1827 Aluminum

1828 Thorium

1830 Vanadium

1839 Lanthanum

1843 Erbium, Terbium

1844 Ruthenium

1860 Cesium, Rubidium

1861 Thallium

1863 Indium

1875 Gallium

1878-1885 Holmium, Thulium, Scandium, Samarium, Gadalinium,Praseodynium, Neodynium, Dysprosium

1886 Germanium

1898 Polonium, Radium

1899 Actinium

Table 3: METALS DISCOVERED IN THE 20TH CENTURY

1901 Europium

1907 Lutetium

1917 Protactinium

1923 Hafnium

1924 Rhenium

1937 Technetium

1939 Francium

1945 Promethium

1940-61 Transuranium elements.

Neptunium

Plutonium

Curium

Americum

Berkelium

Californium

Einsteinium

Fermium

Mendelevium

Nobelium

Lawrencium

Asian Games (Asiad)

2010-07-24T00:13:00.000-07:00

The Asian Games, also called the Asiad, is a multi-sport event held every four years among athletes from all over Asia. The Asian Games are the world's second largest multi-sport event after the Olympic Games.

The games are regulated by the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) under the supervision of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).

The first Asian games were held at New Delhi in 1951, which again hosted it in 1982. The 15th Asian Games were held in Doha, Qatar from December 1 to December 15, 2006. The 16th Asian Games will be held in Guangzhou, China from November 12, 2010 to November 27, 2010.

The 2010 Asian Para Games will debut shortly after the conclusion of the 16th Asian Games, using the same facilities and venue made disability-accessible. The inaugural Asian Para Games, the parallel event for athletes with physical disabilities, is a multi-sport event held every four years after every Asian Games.

In 2009 OCA changed the year from the Asian Games to one year ahead of the Olympic Games. After Incheon Asian Games in 2014, the next games will be in 2019.

Games <> I
Year <> 1951
Host <> New Delhi
1st place <> Japan (24)
2nd place <> India (15)
3rd place <> Iran (8)

Games <> II
Year <> 1954
Host <> Manila
1st place <> Japan (38)
2nd place <> Philippines (14)
3rd place <> South Korea (8)

Games <> III
Year <> 1958
Host <> Tokyo
1st place <> Japan (67)
2nd place <> Philippines (9)
3rd place <> South Korea (8)

Games <> IV
Year <> 1962
Host <> Jakarta
1st place <> Japan (73)
2nd place <> Indonesia (21)
3rd place <> India (10)

Games <> V
Year <> 1966
Host <> Bangkok
1st place <> Japan (78)
2nd place <> South Korea (12)
3rd place <> Thailand (11)

Games <> VI
Year <> 1970
Host <> Bangkok
1st place <> Japan (74)
2nd place <> South Korea (18)
3rd place <> Thailand (9)

Games <> VII
Year <> 1974
Host <> Tehran
1st place <> Japan (75)
2nd place <> Iran (36)
3rd place <> China (32)

Games <> VIII
Year <> 1978
Host <> Bangkok
1st place <> Japan (70)
2nd place <> China (51)
3rd place <> South Korea (18)

Games <> IX
Year <> 1982
Host <> New Delhi
1st place <> China (61)
2nd place <> Japan (57)
3rd place <> South Korea (28)

Games <> X
Year <> 1986
Host <> Seoul
1st place <> China (94)
2nd place <> South Korea (93)
3rd place <> Japan (58)

Games <> XI
Year <> 1990
Host <> Beijing
1st place <> China (183)
2nd place <> South Korea (54)
3rd place <> Japan (38)

Games <> XII
Year <> 1994
Host <> Hiroshima
1st place <> China (125)
2nd place <> Japan (64)
3rd place <> South Korea (63)

Games <> XIII
Year <> 1998
Host <> Bangkok
1st place <> China (129)
2nd place <> South Korea (65)
3rd place <> Japan (52)

Games <> XIV
Year <> 2002
Host <> Busan
1st place <> China (150)
2nd place <> South Korea (96)
3rd place <> Japan (44)

Games <> XV
Year <> 2006
Host <> Doha
1st place <> China (165)
2nd place <> South Korea (58)
3rd place <> Japan (50)

Games <> XVI
Year <> 2010
Host <> Guangzhou, China

Games <> XVII
Year <> 2014
Host <> Incheon, South Korea

Games <> XVIII
Year <> 2019

List of Countries and its Capitals

2010-07-23T23:42:00.000-07:00

Country <-> Capital
Afghanistan <-> Kabul
Albania <-> Tirana
Algeria <-> Algiers
American Samoa <-> Pago Pago
Andorra <-> Andorra la Vella
Angola <-> Luanda
Anguilla <-> The Valley
Antigua and Barbuda <-> Saint John's
Argentina <-> Buenos Aires
Armenia <-> Yerevan
Aruba <-> Oranjestad
Australia <-> Canberra
Austria <-> Vienna
Azerbaijan <-> Baku
Bahamas <-> Nassau
Bahrain <-> Manama
Bangladesh <-> Dhaka
Barbados <-> Bridgetown
Belarus <-> Minsk
Belgium <-> Brussels
Belize <-> Belmopan
Benin <-> Porto-Novo
Bermuda <-> Hamilton
Bhutan <-> Thimphu
Bolivia <-> La Paz
Bosnia-Herzegovina <-> Sarajevo
Botswana <-> Gaborone
Brazil <-> Brasilia
Brunei <-> Bandar Seri Begawan
Bulgaria <-> Sofia
Burkina Faso <-> Ouagadougou
Burundi <-> Bujumbura
Cambodia <-> Phnom Penh
Cameroon <-> Yaoundé
Canada <-> Ottawa
Cape Verde <-> Praia
Cayman Islands <-> George Town
Central African Republic <-> Bangui
Chad <-> N'Djamena
Chile <-> Santiago
China (PRC) <-> Beijing
China (ROC) or Taiwan <-> Taipei
Christmas Island <-> The Settlement
Cocos Islands <-> West Island
Colombia <-> Bogotá
Comoros <-> Moroni
Congo <-> Brazzaville
Congo (DRC) <-> Kinshasa
Cook Islands <-> Avarua
Costa Rica <-> San José
Côte d'Ivoire <-> Yamoussoukro
Croatia <-> Zagreb
Cuba <-> Havana
Cyprus <-> Nicosia
Czech Republic (Czechia) <-> Prague
Denmark <-> Copenhagen
Djibouti <-> Djibouti City
Dominica <-> Roseau
Dominican Republic <-> Santo Domingo
East Timor <-> Díli
Ecuador <-> Quito
Egypt <-> Cairo
El Salvador <-> San Salvador
Equatorial Guinea <-> Malabo
Eritrea <-> Asmara
Estonia <-> Tallinn
Ethiopia <-> Addis Ababa
Faroe Islands <-> Tórshavn
Federated States of Micronesia <-> Palikir
Fiji <-> Suva
Finland <-> Helsinki
France <-> Paris
French Guiana <-> Cayenne
French Polynesia <-> Papeete
Gabon <-> Libreville
Gambia <-> Banjul
Georgia <-> Tbilisi
Germany <-> Berlin
Ghana <-> Accra
Gibraltar <-> Gibraltar
Greece <-> Athens
Greenland <-> Nuuk
Grenada <-> St. George's
Guadeloupe <-> Basse-Terre
Guam <-> Hagåtña
Guatemala <-> Guatemala City
Guernsey <-> St Peter Port
Guinea <-> Conakry
Guinea-Bissau <-> Bissau
Guyana <-> Georgetown
Haiti <-> Port-au-Prince
Honduras <-> Tegucigalpa
Hungary <-> Budapest
Iceland <-> Reykjavík
India <-> New Delhi
Indonesia <-> Jakarta
Iran <-> Tehran
Iraq <-> Baghdad
Ireland <-> Dublin
Isle of Man <-> Douglas
Israel <-> Jerusalem
Italy <-> Rome
Jamaica <-> Kingston
Japan <-> Tokyo
Jersey <-> St. Helier
Jordan <-> Amman
Kazakhstan <-> Astana
Kenya <-> Nairobi
Kiribati <-> South Tarawa
Korea (North) <-> P'yŏngyang
Korea (South) <-> Seoul
Kosovo <-> Prishtinë
Kuwait <-> Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan <-> Bishkek
Laos <-> Vientiane
Latvia <-> Riga
Lebanon <-> Beirut
Lesotho <-> Maseru
Liberia <-> Monrovia
Libya <-> Tripoli
Liechtenstein <-> Vaduz
Lithuania <-> Vilnius
Luxembourg <-> Luxembourg
Macedonia <-> Skopje
Madagascar <-> Antananarivo
Malawi <-> Lilongwe
Malaysia <-> Kuala Lumpur
Maldives <-> Malé
Mali <-> Bamako
Malta <-> Valletta
Marshall Islands <-> Majuro
Martinique <-> Fort-de-France
Mauritania <-> Nouakchott
Mauritius <-> Port Louis
Mayotte <-> Mamoudzou
Mexico <-> Mexico City
Moldova (Monaco) <-> Chişinău
Mongolia <-> Ulaanbaatar
Montenegro <-> Podgorica
Montserrat <-> Brades Estate
Morocco <-> Rabat
Mozambique <-> Maputo
Myanmar <-> Naypyidaw
Namibia <-> Windhoek
Nauru <-> Yaren (de facto)
Nepal <-> Kathmandu
Netherlands <-> Amsterdam
Netherlands Antilles <-> Willemstad
New Caledonia <-> Nouméa
New Zealand <-> Wellington
Nicaragua <-> Managua
Niger <-> Niamey
Nigeria <-> Abuja
Niue <-> Alofi
Norfolk Island <-> Kingston
Northern Mariana Islands <-> Saipan
Norway <-> Oslo
Oman <-> Muscat
Pakistan <-> Islamabad
Palau <-> Ngerulmud
Palestinian territories <-> Ramallah
Panama <-> Panama City
Papua New Guinea <-> Port Moresby
Paraguay <-> Asunción
Peru <-> Lima
Philippines <-> Manila
Pitcairn Islands <-> Adamstown
Poland <-> Warsaw
Portugal <-> Lisbon
Puerto Rico <-> San Juan
Qatar <-> Doha
Réunion <-> Saint-Denis
Romania <-> Bucharest
Russia <-> Moscow
Rwanda <-> Kigali
Saint Helena <-> Jamestown
Saint Kitts and Nevis <-> Basseterre
Saint Lucia <-> Castries
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines <-> Kingstown
Saint-Pierre and Miquelon <-> Saint-Pierre
Samoa <-> Apia
San Marino <-> San Marino
São Tomé and Príncipe <-> São Tomé
Saudi Arabia <-> Riyadh
Senegal <-> Dakar
Serbia <-> Belgrade
Seychelles <-> Victoria
Sierra Leone <-> Freetown
Singapore <-> Singapore
Slovakia <-> Bratislava
Slovenia <-> Ljubljana
Solomon Islands <-> Honiara
Somalia <-> Mogadishu
South Africa <-> Pretoria (administrative capital), Cape Town (legislative capital), Bloemfontein, (judicial capital)
Spain <-> Madrid
Sri Lanka <-> Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
Sudan <-> Khartoum
Suriname <-> Paramaribo
Svalbard <-> Longyearbyen
Swaziland <-> Mbabane
Sweden <-> Stockholm
Switzerland <-> Bern
Syria <-> Damascus
Tajikistan <-> Dushanbe
Tanzania <-> Dodoma
Thailand <-> Bangkok
Togo <-> Lomé
Tokelau <-> Tokelau
Tonga <-> Nukuʻalofa
Trinidad and Tobago <-> Port of Spain
Tunisia <-> Tunis
Turkey <-> Ankara
Turkmenistan <-> Ashgabat
Turks and Caicos Islands <-> Cockburn Town
Tuvalu <-> Fongafale (in Funafuti)
Uganda <-> Kampala
Ukraine <-> Kiev
United Arab Emirates <-> Abu Dhabi
United Kingdom <-> London
United States <-> Washington, D.C.
Uruguay <-> Montevideo
Uzbekistan <-> Tashkent
Vanuatu <-> Port Vila
Vatican City <-> Vatican City
Venezuela <-> Caracas
Vietnam <-> Hanoi
Virgin Islands, British <-> Road Town
Virgin Islands, US <-> Charlotte Amalie
Wales <-> Cardiff
Wallis and Futuna <-> Matâ'Utu
Western Sahara <-> Laayoune (French transliteration)
Yemen <-> Sana'a
Zambia <-> Lusaka
Zimbabwe <-> Harare

The Constitution of India

2010-07-22T01:08:00.000-07:00

The Constitution of India

Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishing the structure, procedures, powers and duties, of the government and spells out the fundamental rights, directive principles and duties of citizens. Passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, it came into effect on 26 January 1950. The date 26 January was chosen to commemorate the declaration of independence of 1930. It declares the Union of India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty and to promote among them all fraternity; the words "socialist", "secular" and "integrity" and to promote among them all "Fraternity"; were added to the definition in 1976 by constitutional amendment. India celebrates the adoption of the constitution on 26 January each year as Republic Day. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world, containing 395 articles in 22 parts, 12 schedules and 94 amendments, for a total of 117,369 words in the English language version. Besides the English version, there is an official Hindi translation. After coming into effect, the Constitution replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the governing document of India. Being the supreme law of the country, every law enacted by the government must conform to the constitution. B. R. Ambedkar, as chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, was the chief architect of the Indian Constitution

Constituent Assembly

The Constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee and Nalini Ranjan Ghosh were some important figures in the Assembly. There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi and R. K. Sidhwa. The Chairman of the Minorities Committee was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a distinguished Christian who represented all Christians other than Anglo-Indians. Ari Bahadur Gururng represented the Gorkha Community. Prominent jurists like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, B. R. Ambedkar, Benegal Narsing Rau and K. M. Munshi, Ganesh Mavlankar were also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh and Rajkumari Amrit Kaur were important women members. The first president of the Constituent Assembly was Sachidanand Sinha later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly. The members of the Constituent Assembly met for the first time in the year 1946 on 9 December.

Drafting

In the 14 August 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming various committees was presented. Such committees included a Committee on Fundamental Rights, the Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee. On 29 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr Ambedkar as the Chairman along with six other members. A Draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947.

The Assembly met, in sessions open to the public, for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution. After many deliberations and some modifications, the 308 members of the Assembly signed two hand-written copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950. Two days later, the Constitution of India became the law of all the Indian lands.

Constitution of India has undergone 108 amendments in less than 60 years since its enactment.

Structure

The Constitution, in its current form, consists of a preamble, 22 parts containing 395 articles, 12 schedules, 5 appendices and 94 amendments to date. The Women's Reservation Bill, 2010, if passed by both houses of parliament and ratified by half of the states, would be 95th Amendment to the Constitution. Although it is federal in nature with strong unitary bias, in case of emergencies it takes unitary structure.

The Constitution of India was enacted, signed and adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949.

On January 26, 1950, the Constitution of India came into force on which date India also became a Republic. Our constitution makes detailed provisions for the following:

• Citizenship,
• Fundamental Rights,
• Directive Principles of State Policy,
• Structure of the Government,
• Parliament and State Legislatures,
• Supreme Court and High Courts,
• Relationship between the Union and the States,
• Services,
• Official Language and various other matters of basic importance

Salient Features of Constitution

1. It is the longest written constitution in the world.
2. Consisting of 22 Chapters, over 395 Articles and 12 Schedules.
3. It proclaims India a Sovereign Democratic Republic.
4. Fundamental Rights are guaranteed to all citizens of India.
5. Directive Principles of State Policy are incorporated.
6. It established the parliamentary system of government, i.e., the President of the Union is the constitutional head, the Council of Ministers or the Union Cabinet is the real executive and is responsible to the Lok Sabha.
7. It is federal in form (in normal times) but unitary in spirit (in emergencies).
8. It is neither too rigid (as some provisions can be amended by a simple majority) nor flexible (as some provisions require special majority for amendment).
9. It declares India a secular state.
10. It guarantees single citizenship to all citizens.
11. It introduced adult franchise, i.e., every adult above 18 years has the right to vote and the system of joint electorates.
12. It established an independent judiciary; the Supreme Court acts as a guardian of the Constitution in place of the Privy Council.

The Preamble

The draft of the Preamble was prepared by Jawaharlal Nehru and is based on the American model. The 42nd Amendment added the words ``Secular and Socialist'' and now the preamble reads as follows.

``We the People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens :

Justice; social, economic and political;
Liberty; of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
Equality; of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all;
Fraternity; assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation;

In our Constituent Assembly, November 26, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution.

Articles of the Constitution

Part I
Articles 1-4
Territory of India,, admission,, establishment or formation of new states

Part II
Articles 5-11
Citizenship

Part III
Articles 12-35
Fundamental Rights

Part IV
Articles 36-51
Directive Principles of State Policy

Part IV – A
Article 51-A
Duties of a citizen of India. It was added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976

Part V
Articles 52-151
Government at the Union level

Part VI
Articles 152-237
Government at the State level

Part VII
Article 238
Deals with states in Part B of the First Schedule. It was repealed by 7th Amendment in 1956

Part VIII
Articles 239-241
Administration of Union Territories

Part IX
Article 242-243
Territories in Part D of the First Schedule and other territories. It was repealed by 7th Amendment in 1956

Part X
Articles 244-244 A
Scheduled and tribal areas

Part XI
Articles 245-263
Relations between the Union and States

Part XII
Articles 264-300
Finance, property, contracts and suits

Part XIII
Articles 301-307
Trade,, commerce and travel within the territory of India

Part XIV
Articles 308-323
Services under the Union and States

Part XIV-A
Articles 323A-323B
Added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976 and deals with administrative tribunals to hear disputes and other complaints

Part XV
Articles 324-329
Election and Election Commission

Part XVI
Articles 330-342
Special provision to certain classes ST/SC and Anglo Indians

Part XVII
Articles 343-351
Official languages

Part XVIII
Articles 352-360
Emergency provisions

Part XIX
Articles 361-367
Miscellaneous provision regarding exemption of the President and governors from criminal proceedings

Part XX
Article 368
Amendment of Constitution

Part XXI
Articles 369-392
Temporary,, transitional and special provisions

Part XXII
Articles 393-395
Short title, commencement and repeal of the Constitution

Schedules

FIRST SCHEDULE : I. The State, II. The Union Territories.

SECOND SCHEDULE :
PART A. Provisions to the President and the Governors of States
PART B. (Repeated)
PART C. Provisions as to the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the House of the People and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Council of States and the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council of a State.
PART D. Provisions as to the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts.
PART E. Provisions as to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.

THIRD SCHEDULE : Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.

FOURTH SCHEDULE : Allocation of Seats in the Council of States.

FIFTH SCHEDULE : Provisions as to the administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
PART A. General
PART B. Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
PART C. Scheduled Areas
PART D. Amendment of the Schedule

SIXTH SCHEDULE : Provisions as to the administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

SEVENTH SCHEDULE :
LIST I. Union List
LIST II. State List
LIST III. Concurrent List

EIGHTH SCHEDULE : Languages

NINTH SCHEDULE : Article 31B

TENTH SCHEDULE : Provisions as to disqualification on the ground of defection

ELEVENTH SCHEDULE : Article 243G

TWELFTH SCHEDULE : Article 243W